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OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY 



T. B. WIOGIN, M. D., 

PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY 

NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY DENTAL, SCHOOL, 

Dental Department of Northwestern University 

ALSO IN 

COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS 

Medical Department of University of Illinois 



026 

NOV 8 1897 



CHICAGO. 

Copyrighted 189-7. 



SECOND OOPY, 



51655 



HENSON BROS.. 373 DEARE 3T 

2. 






PREFACE. 



hi preparing this compe?id^ I have endeavored to call the 
attention of the student, to those facts which I consider to be 
of greatest value in the study of Physiology. 1 was prompt- 
ed to do this by a full realization of the short time zvhich a 
student has to spend upo?i the study and by the difficulty he 
must experience in picking out these essential points from 
any complete text book on the subject. To this end I have 
quoted from the latest editions of the best authors, aiming 
to aid in the study of the text books recommended, rather 
than to' supplant them. 

Should the students gain in their study of the work a 
tithe of the pleasure I have felt in its preparation I shall 
be amply rewarded. 

THE AUTHOR. 
Chicago, III. 

ioo State Street, Suite 121 1. 



Outlines of Physiology. 



PHENOMENA OF LIFE. 

i. What is Physiology ? 

A. The word Physiology from the Greek pkusis, na- 
ture, and logos, a discourse, originally embraced the 
study of all natural objects, both organic and inorganic. 
To-day physiology means the study of life, and investi- 
gates the vital phenomena exhibited by all organic bodies, 
% vegetable and animal, but excluding all inorganic bodies. 
Physiology is really synonymous with Biology because 
to study either science, vital properties must be present 
in the thing studied. 

2. What do you mean by vital phenomena? 

A This term is applied to the changes that go on 
continually in all living bodies, the primary causes of 
which we do not know ; we note the object of each func- 
tion, but cannot state what sets it in motion. 

3. How may Physiology be divided ? 

A. 1. Vegetable Pyhsiolo^y treating of the phe- 
nomena shown forth by the various structures of which 
plants are constructed. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



2. Animal Physiology, treating of the phenom- 
ena shown forth by the organs and tissues of which ani- 
mals are constructed. 

4. Define human Physiology. 

A. Human Physiology is the science that treats of 
the functions of the human body in a state of health. It 
tells how man is begotten, born, lives, moves and has 
his being ; how he attains maturity and how he dies. 

5. What do you understand by a function ? 

A. Function is the action of an organ or tissue. 

6. How may the functions of the human body be 
classified ? 

A. Into three groups. 

1. A T utritive functions, whose object it is to preserve 

the individual, e. g. Digestion, Circulation of 
blood, Absorption, Respiration, Assimilation, 
Animal heat, Secretion and Excretion. 

2. Anintal functions, which bring the individual 

into conscious relation with external nature, 
e. g. Sensation, motion, language, mental and 
moral manifestations. 

3. R( productive functions, whose object it is to pre- 

serve the species. 

7. What are the essentials of life ? 

A. Birth, Growth, Development, Decay and Death. 

8. Define each. 

A. Birth — Separation from the parent with power 
to maintain existence. 

Growth — Inherent power to increase in size. 

Development — Gradual advance, stage by stage, of 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY . 



animal or vegetable bodies from the embryonic to the 
perfect state. A specialization of function. 

Dkcay — State in which waste exceed repair. 

Death — Cessation of life. 

9. What is Protoplasm ? 

A.' A Viscid albuminoid substance, semi-fluid in sub- 
stance, alkaline in reaction, the physical basis of all life, 
or living matter. 

10. Describe the composition os protoplasm, 

A. 80 to 85 per cent, water, 15 to 20 per cent, solids, 
the greater part of which are proteids or albumins. Some 
glycogen, starch, cellulose, chloraphyll, fatty bodies, lecithin, 
certain ferments and other substances. 

1 1 . Define a cell. 

A. A nucleated mass of protoplasm of microscopic 
size with sufficient individuality to have a life history of 
its own. 

1 2. What changes do cells undergo ? 

A. Birth, Growth, Development, Decay and Death. 

13. What is the unit of Physiology ? 
A. Protoplasm. 

14. Upon what does all life depend ? 
A, A cell. 

15. Give fair example of a simple cell as seen in 
Nature. 

A. An amoebae, a unicellular organism. 

16. Name the vital or physiological characteristics of 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



protoplasm as seen in the amoeba. 

A. i. The Power of Spontaneous movement. 

2. The Power of Response to Stimuli, or Irrita- 
bility. 

3. The Power of Digestion, Respiration and Nu- 
trition. 

4. The Power of Growth. 

5. The Power of Reproduction . 

17. Name various stimuli which by contact with pro- 
toplasm will make it manifest its irritability. 

A. 1. Changes of Temperature. 

2. Mechanical Stimuli, 

3. Nerve Influence. 

4. Chemical Influence. 

5. Electrical. 

18. What w r ords are used to describe the processes 
which take place in living cells ? 

A. Metabolism, meaning change includes all the pro- 
cesses which make up the life histor} T of the cell; Ana- 
bolism, Assimilation, or Constructive Metabolism, all of 
which mean a building up of the structure of the cell. 
Katabolism, Disassimilation or Destructive Metabolism , 
all of which mean a breaking down of the structure of 
the cell. 

19. What is the effect of the performance of function 
in living matter? 

A. Every action, or effort during life wears out the 
tissues, whether voluntary or involuntary, consequently 
there is constant waste, and equally constant effort to re- 
pair that waste. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



20. Define an inorganic body. 

A. One that does not depend upon organization for 
existence. 

21. Define an organic body. 

A. One that depends upon an organization for life. 

22. State difference in growth of organic and inorgan- 
ic bodies. 

A An organic body's growth is interstitial or from 
within out. Inorganic bodies grow by addition to their 
outer surfaces, or from without in. 

23. Does the length of life of individual cells in dif- 
ferent sized organic bodies vary ? 

A. It does. The processes of life are relatively more 
rapid in small animals, so the smaller the animal the 
shorter the life of the cells of wfrch it is composed, and 
vice versa. 

24. How are the cells reproduced ? 

A. By gemmation or building in low forms of life. 
By fission or division in higher animals. 

25. Describe the structure of Protoplasmic cells. 

A. 1. The Reticulum — the intra cellular mesh work 
of a firmer consistence than the fluid contained within its 
interstices. It is elastic extensile and has an affinity for 
staining reagents. 

2. The Hyaloplasm. More fluid part contained 
in meshes of Reticulum, has no affinity for staining 
reagents. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGV. 



26. What is the first trace of the differentiation of 
Protoplasm ? 

A , Appearance of a Nucleus 

27. Describe Nuclei. 

A. They are either small, transparent vesicular bodies 
containing one or more smaller particles (Nucleoli), or 
they are semi-solid masses of protoplasm always in the 
resting condition bounded by a well defined envelope. 

28. Name two important characteristics of Nuclei, 
-distinguishing them from protoplasm. 

A. 1 . Power of staining. 

2. Resistance to acids and alkalies. 

29. Describe the Structure of a Nuclei. 

A. The Nucleus at rest is bounded by a distinct en- 
velope derived from the reticulum of the cell. Besides 
this envelope, it consists of a reticular network of fibrils 
called : 1, Chromoplasm because they stain readily. 2, 
Nuclear Matrix — a homogeneous proteid material which 
does not stain readily — filling up the meshwork of the 
Chromoplasm. 

30. Where does Cell Division begin ? 

A. In the Nucleus and possibly in the Nucleolus. 

31. Name varieties of Nuclear division and define 
each. 

A. 1. Simple or direct — the exact division of the 
Nucleus into two equal parts by constriction in the centre 
-called Amitotic or Akinetic. 

2. Indirect — a series of changes in the arrange- 
ment of the nuclear reticulum, resulting in the exact 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



division of the chromatic fibres into two parts which form 
the chromoplasm of the daughter unclei — called Karyo- 
Wnesis or Mitotic. 

32. What is the relative frequency of indirect cell 
division and name its stages ? 

A' Karyokinesis is believed to be almost universal. 
Stages are : 1. Convolution. 2. Rosette or wreath 3. 
Star or wheel. 4. Diaster or double star. 5. Daugh- 
ter nuclei. 

33. Give some differences between plants and animals 

A, 1 . Power of movement in animals, none in plants 
2. Digestive tract in animals, none in plants. 

34. Why do animal cells require different food from 
eg e table cells? 

A. Vegetable cells build up new protoplasm from or- 
ganic salts taken up from the earth, from the air, and 
from water, by virtue of the chlorophyll or green coloring 
matter which they possess. Animal cells must have pro- 
toplasm read} T formed, having no chlorophyll. 

35. Describe the Development of an organized cell. 

A. By division it does not form so many independent 
organisms, as is the case with the Amoeba, but produces 
the material from which is derived the complete and per- 
fect whole. 

36. Whaf is the starting point of animal life ? 

A. A spherical ovum or germ — a protoplasmic celt 
-with a nucleus and nucleolus — w 7 hich by segmentation 
forms a complete membrane of cells, polyhedral in shape 
from mutual pressure, called the Blastoderm. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



37. What does division of the Blastoderm produce? 

A. It divides into two and then into three layers front 
the rapid proliferation of the cells ot the first single layer 
The^e layers are called: 1. The Kpiblast. 2. The 
Mesoblast. 3. The Hypoblast. 

38. What definite parts of the Completed body are 
derived from these three primordial layers ? 

A. 1. FYom the Epiblast the skin and central ner- 
vous system. 

2. From the Mesoblast, the flesh or muscles of 
the body. 

3. From the Hypoblast, the epithelium of the 
digestive tract, some of the chief glands, etc. 

39. Explain how the tissues and organs so derived 
exhibit in such varying degree the primary properties of 
protoplasm. 

A. The muscles derived from the Mesoblast are con- 
tractile and respond to stimule readily. The liver cells 
have nutritive powers preeminently. As the ce'ls in- 
crease in number the organism deputes to the different 
groups of cells (or to the organs and tissues which they 
form) special functions, thus dividing up, developing, 
and making more perfect by this division, the properties 
posses.sed by the original primary cell, and described as : 
1. Power of Spontaneous movement. 2. Irritability. 
3. Nutritive, Digestive and Respiratory. 4. Growth. 
5. Reproduction. 

40. By means of what allied sciences is Physiology 
studied ? 

A. 1. Anatomy (to cut up) the science which treats 
of the structure of organized bodies. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 13 

2. Histology {a web) wMch is concerned with 
the microscopic structure of the tissues and organs of the 
body. 

3. Comparative Anatomy — a study of the struct- 
ure of various animals from the higher to the lowest. 

4. Embryology which treats of the mode of orig- 
in, the growth and structure of organisms in embryo. 

5. Chemistry, which investigates the composi- 
tion of the elements of the body. 

6. Vivisection, the anatomical study of living 
animals. 

41. How have the facts which form the basis of Phy- 
siology been ascertained ? 

A. 1. From actual observation of the phenomena 
occurring in the human body daily and hourly, e. g. 
estimnti-n of amount and composition of ingesta and 
egesta, respiration, heart beat, etc. 

2. By observation upon other animals which are 
like the human body in structure. 

3. By observation of the changes produced by 
experiments upon the processes in such animals. 

4. From observing the changes in the working 
of the human body produced by disease. 

5. From observations upon the gradual changes 
which t»ke place in the functions of organs, as seen in 
the Embryo, from their inception to their complete 
development. 

STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION OF THE BODY. 

42. What does a study of the structure of the body 
-show us? 



]d OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. We find it to be made up of different parts, Brain, 
Liver, Muscles, Bo.ie, all of which can nevertheless be re- 
solved into the elementary tissues, as Connective, Muscu- 
lar, Nerve and Epitheleal tissues. 

43. How are cells of the body described? 

A. 1. Shape — Spheroidal, conical, prismatic. 

2. Situation — Free, as in blood, Combined, when 
connected together to lorm organs. 

3. Contents — Fat and pigment cells. 

4. Function — Protective, secreting, contractile. 

5. Origin — Epiblastic, mesoblastic, hypoblastic. 

44. What is the primary tissue element ? 
A. The cell. 

45. How are cells connected to form tissues ? 

A. 1. By intercellular cement substance. 
2. By anastomosis of their processes. 

46. What are derived tissue elements ? 

A. 1. Intercellular cement substance. 

2. Fibres. 

3. Tubules. 

47 . How do cells die ? 

A. 1. Mechanical Abrasion — cells of skin. 

2. Chemical Transformation — a. fatty metamor- 
phosis, as oil globules in secretion of milk. b. Pigimen- 
tary degeneration, as in epithelium of air vesicles of 
lungs, c. Calcareous degeneration, in Cartilage. 

48. Where is epithelium found ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. It covers the entire body and lines all open and 
closed cavities. 

49. How is epithelial tissue classified ? 

A. 1. Simple. 2. Transitional. 3. Stratified. 

50. Name four varieties of simple epithelial cells ? 

A. 1: Squamous. 2. Spheroidal or glandular. 5. 
Columnar. 4. Ciliated. 



? 



1. What is Endothelium ? 



A. A term applied to epithelial tissues lining closed 
cavities. 

52. What are the functions of epithelium ? 

A. 1. Protective. 2. Protective and moving. 3. 
Secreting. 4. Protective and secreting. 5. Sensorial. 

53. Give an example of the location of each kind ? 

A. 1. Protective — Skin 2 Protective and moving 
— Ciliated Epithelium lining respiratory tract. 3. Secret- 
ing — Glandular epithelium. 4. Protective and secreting 
— Lining intestines. 5. Sensorial — Rods and cones 01 
retina. 

CONNECTIVE TISSUES. 

54. What purpose do connective tissues fulfill ? 

A. Form the skeleton with its connections. A sup- 
porting framework and covering to the organs, composed 
of muscular, glandular and nerve tissues. The chie: 
function, a mechanical one of support. 

55. Name the different connective tissues. 



16 OUTLINES OK PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. i. Fibrous connective tissues. 2. Cartilage. 3. 
Bone. 

56. From what two elements are connective tissues 
made up ? 

A. 1. Cells. 2. Intercellular substance. 

57. Give an example of yellow elastic tissue. 
A. The true vocal cords. 

58. What is Areolar tissue ? 

A. The sub cutaneous, sub-serous, sub-mucous tissue 

of the body. It sheathes muscles, nerves, glands, and 
all internal organs, penetrating their interior, supporting 
and c nnecting their finest parts, and is the most com- 
mon of all connective tissues. 

59. Name the special forms of connective tissue. 

A. r. Adenoid or Reiiform. 2. Gelatinous. 3. 
Adipose. 

60 Give the chief uses of Adipose tissue. 

A. 1. Store <>f combusiib^e matter which may be 
reabsorbed by the blo< d a> needed and be u-ed up by 
metabolism ot the tissues, thus keeping up heat of the 
body. 

2. That beneath the skin bv want of conducting 
p >wer prevents waste of he .t by stirface radiation. 

3. A packing materia' — filing up spaces and 
forming a yielding elastic covering for delicate organs 
or structures. 

4. In the long bmes as yel'ow marrow, it sup- 
ports the sma 1 blood vesse's which are distributed from 
it to the surrounding compact bone 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. i7 

61. What is Cartilage composed of and into what 
classes is it divided ? 

A. Cells imbedded in the matrix, i. Hyaline. 2. 
Yellow Elastic. 3. White Fibrous Cartilage. 

62. Give an example of Hyaline and Yellow Elastic 
Cartilage. 

A. 1. Hyaline — the Nasal Cartilages. 2. Yellow 
elastic — the Epiglottis. 

63. Name varieties of white Fibro-Cartilage with ex- 
ample of each. 

A. 1. Inter- Articular Eibro Cartilage — Semi lunar 
Cartilages of knee joint. 

2. Circumferential or Marginal — edges of aceta- 
bulum. 

3. Connecting — inter vertebral fibro- Cartilages. 

4. In sheaths of tendons — in tendon of tibialis 
posticus. 

64. Give functions of Cartilage. 

A. Offers a firm yet yielding framework possessing 
strength and elasticity. Maintains the shape of tubes — 
affords attachment to muscles and ligaments, binds bones 
together and deepens joint cavities. 

65. Give the composition of bone. 

A, 67% earthy and 33% animal matter or Collagen. 

66. Describe the structure of bone. 

A. To the eye bones seem to be made up of (1) com- 
pact and (2) spongy tissue. The articular ends of long 
bones are covered with compact, but their bulk consists 



iS OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

of spongy tissue. Their shafts are formed by thick layers 
of compact bone surrounding a central canal — the med- 
ullary cavity — which contains a fatty substance — the 
medulla or marrow. In flat bones the spongy tissue fills 
the interior, and is covered b} T a thin sheet of compact 
bone. 

67. Name and describe the two varieties of Marrow. 

A. Red — in spongy bone. It is vascular and main- 
tains the nutrition of spongy bone. Yellow — in medul- 
lary canals; made up of fat cells and blood vessels. 

68. What is the Periosteum and give its use? 

A. A protective, nutritive and bone forming mem- 
brane, covering all but the articular surfaces of bones. 
It is made up of connective tissue which supports blood 
vessels carrying nutriment to the bone. Its inner layer, 
in contact with the bone, is osteogenetic. 

69. Do bones receive blood from an}- other source ? 

A. By the nutrient artery which penetrates the shaft 
to the medullar}^ canal, supplies the marrow and by small 
branches the interior of the bone. 

70. Describe the microscopic structure of bone. 

A. All bone is found to be essentially the same in 
structure under the microscope. It contains many small 
spaces, fusiform in shape, called lacunae, which contain 
bone cells and are connected with each other by minute 
canals called canaliculi. 

71. What are Haversian Canals? 

A. Small canals less than 1 -500th of an inch in diam- 
eter running lengthwise in long bones, anastomosing 
with each other by lateral branches. Each canal is the 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 19 

center of a series of concentric Lacunae and Canaliculi, 
which, absorbing nutriment from the blood vessels con- 
tained in the canal, carry it to the densest bone. 

72. How are all bones developed ? 

A. 1. By ossification from fibrous tissue or mem- 
brane. 
2. By ossification of a form laid down in hyaline 
cartilage. 



/ 6- 



What is ossification and what causes it 



A. The formation of bone caused by the action of the 
osteoblasts or bone forming cells. 

74. Name the steps by which cartilage changes to 
bone. 

A. 1. Vascularization of Cartilage. 

2. Calcification of Cartilaginous Matrix. 

3. Substitution of Embryonic spongy bone for 

Cartilage. 

4. Substitution of Periosteal bone for the Primar}^ 

Embryonic spongy bone. 

5. Absorption of inner layers of Periostal bone. 

6. Formation of Compact Bone. 

75. Name centres of ossification of long bones. 

A. 1. One for shaft or diaphysis. 

2. One for each articular extremity or epiphysis. 

76. How do long bones grow ? 

A. 1. In length — by growth at two ends of shaft. 
2. In thickness — by the deposit of successive 
layers beneath the Periosteum. 



/ / • 



What are the functions of bones ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. i . To form a supporting framework for the entire 
body. 2. To protect internal organs. 3. To act as levers 
to be moved by the action of the muscles. 

THE TEETH. 

78. Give number and period of eruption in months of 
the temporary teeth. 



Incisors. 


Deciduous First 
Molars. 


Canines. 


Deciduous Sec- 
ond Molars. 


6 


12 


18 


24 



Ten in each jaw. Twenty in all. 

79. Give number and period of eruption in years of 
the Permanent teeth. 

iBi. Cuspids or; Third Mol- 

First I Incisors. I Pre Molars. j Second \ ars or 

MTrsCent. Lat. I First. [Second. Canines | Molars j Wisdoms. 



10 I 11 ' 12 17 to 25 



Sixteen in each jaw or thirty -two in all. 

80. Name parts and give structure of a tooth. 

A. Crown, part beyond level of gums. Neck, con- 
stricted portion embraced by free edges of gnms. Fang 
or root, all below neck, composed of Dentine or Ivory 
mainly, this contains cavity which is called pulp cavity, 
because it contains blood vessels, nerves and connective 
tissue called tooth pulp. The blood vessels and nerves 
enter tooth at apical foramen — small opening in extrem- 
ity of fang. The Dentine is covered in crown portion 
with enamel, fang is covered with Crusta Petrosa or 
cement. Neck also covered by enamel which here joins 
cement. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



81. Give chemical composition of Dentine. 
A. 28% animal and 72% earthy matter. 

82. Describe the structure of Dentine. 

A. Made up of many delicate tubules ^L of an inch 
in diameter, communicating by their inner ends with 
pulp cavity, their outer ends coming in contact with 
enamel and cement. The tubules contain fine prolonga- 
tions of the tooth pulp which are processes of the odon- 
toblasts or dentine cells, lining pulp cavity and which 
give the dentine sensitiveness and nutrition. 

S3. Describe structure and composition of enamel. 

A. Hardest tissue in body, contains only 2 to 3% ani- 
mal matter, 97 to 98 earthy. Made up of fine hexagonal 
fibres -3-^0 °f an lncn i n diameter. These are set on 
end upon surface of dentine and fit into depressions of 
same. These enamel prisms radiate in such a manner 
from the dentine in wavy parallel curves, that at top of 
tooth they are vertical, at sides more horizontal. Enamel 
is covered by thin calcified membrane called the cuticle 
of the enamel. 

84. Describe Crusta Petrosa. 

A . Outer covering of fang, composed of true bone con- 
taining lacunae and canaliculi. No Haversian Canals 
except in thickest portion. 

85. From what tissue are the teeth developed? 
A. Epithelial tissue covering jaws. 

86. What is the primary enamel organ or enamel 
germ ? 

A. Downward growth from stratified epithelium of 



22 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

mucous membrane of the mouth. This becomes thick- 
ened along central portion of free surface of jaws. The 
process passes downward into enamel groove of embryonic 
jaw. The groove and enamel germ elongate downward 
and the deeper part inclines outward and becomes bul- 
bous, the upper part becomes restricted forming the 
neck. There is then an increased development of the 
bulbous part at points corresponding to the situation of 
future milk teeth. The common enamel organ becomes 
divided in its deeper part into special enamel germs, cor- 
responding to the milk teeth, which are finally placed 
each in a special recess of the jaw and connect with the 
common enamel organ only by the neck. The enamel 
germ is the membrane which later becomes calcified and 
so forms the enamel of the completed tooth. 

87. Describe a dental papilla and dental sac. 

A. The upward growth from underlying tissue at 
base of enamel groove — of a vascular papilla — which 
meets descending enamel organ, and pushing up be 
comes covered as by a cap by enamel organ. While the 
central part of the sub-epithelial tissue forms dental pa- 
pilla, the part which bounds embryonic tooth forms the 
dental sac. The jaw below sends up processes which 
form partitions between the teeth, so small chambers are 
made in which the dental sac and enclosed enamel organ 
and papilla are contained. The outer layer of columnar 
cells covering papilla are called odontoblasts and these 
form the dentine, the remainder of the papilla forming the 
tooth pulp. 

88. From what is the cement or crusta petrosa 
formed ? 

A. From the tissue of the tooth sac which contains a 
layer of osteoblasts or bone forming cells. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 23 

89. What is the cavity of reserve ? 

A. A small sac set by from the sac of the temporary 
tooth, from which a permanent tooth is formed. 

THE MUSCULAR TISSUE. 

90. Xame and give distribution of two chief kinds of 
muscular tissue. 

A. 1. Unstriped, Involuntary or Plain Muscle forms 
the proper muscular coats of 1 . The digest- 
ive tract from the middle of oesophagus to 
internal sphincter-ani. 2. Of Ureters and 
urinary bladder. 3. Of Trachea and 
bronchi. 4. Of ducts of glands. 5. Of 
gall bladder. 6. Of vesiculae seminales. 
7. Of pregnant uterus. 8. Of blood ves- 
sels and lymphatics. 9. Of iris and other 
parts of eye. 10. Of tunica dartos of scro- 
tum, also in true skin generally. 
2. Striped or Voluntary — whole of skeletal mus- 
cles, walls of abdomen, muscles of internal 
ear and pharynx, and finally the heart. 

91. Describe structure of unstriped muscles? 

A. Made up of elongated, nucleated cells, — flat — 
4-3-V77 of an inch broad, -g-L^ of an inch long. Each cell 
consists of a fine elastic sheath, of a central bundle of 
fibrils of contractile substance and of an oblong nucleus. 
Between the fibres is a cement substance, the endomysium . 
Surrounding them is the perimysium. 

92. Describe the structure of striped muscles. 

A. Covered by sheath of areolar tissue, the epimysium 
— from which partitions are sent in to support and cover 



24 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



the fasciculi or bundle of fibres called perimysium. The 
fibres which make up the fasciculus are themselves sup- 
ported by an areolar tissue called endomysium. Blood 
vessels and nerves are supported by these areolar tissues, 
The fibres have a distinct elastic sheath called the sarco- 
lemma. 

93. Give microscopic appearance of a striped muscle 
fibre. 

A. Longitudinally. 1. Alternate dark and light, 
transverse stripes. 2. Higher power divides light stripes 
in middle line by fine, dark line — Dobie's line. 3. 
Dark stripes are sometimes divided by clear line called 
Henson's disc. 4. Each fibre ma}* be divided into long- 
itudinal fibrils — by teasing — which are called sarcos- 
tyles or muscle columns, which are made up of shorter 
columns — the sarcous elements of Bowman. 

Transversely. 1. Outline of sarcolemma. 2. 
Mapped out in polygonal areas by clear lines called 
Cohnheims fields. The lines represent the cement ma- 
terial between sarcostyles, called sarcoplasm. Just inside 
sarcolemma are seen muscle ?iuclei or muscle corp7tscles 
surrounded by granular protoplasm. 

94. How does structure of heart muscle differ from 
that of other striped muscle ? 

A. The fibres which lie side by side are united by 
short branches. Fibres are smaller — striation less 
marked — no sarcolemma — muscle corpuscles in middle 
of fibres. 

95. Describe blood and nerve supply of muscles. 

A. Capillaries form oblong meshes outside of sarco- 
lemma — none penetrate it. 

In Unstriped Muscle. — Nerves from sympathetic sys- 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



tern, farm ground plexus corresponding to each group of 
muscle bundles; branches of this plexus, anastomosing, 
form plexuses corresponding to each muscle bundle — 
called intermediary plexuses, — from which branches com- 
posed of primitive fibrils pass in between the individual 
fibres and either anastomose or terminate in the nuclei of 
the muscle cells. 

In Striped Muscle. — Nerves from cerebro-spinal sys- 
tem, therefore medullated. The}' form first ground and 
intermediary plexuses, and when a branch of the latter 
enters a muscle fibre its primitive sheath becomes contin- 
uous with the sarcolemma; its axis cylinder forms a net- 
work of fibrils on the surface of the fibre, which has 
embedded in it a flattened granular mass — the motoricil 



end plate. 



NERVOUS TISSUE. 



96. Of what is nerve tissue composed ? 

A. Composed of one element, the neuron, embedded 
in and supported by a substance called neuroglia. 

97. Of what does the Xeuron consist ? 

A. Of a cell bod}' — several branching processes 
called dendrites, one long process, the neuraxon, which 
becomes a nerve fibre. 

98. How are nervous centres made up? 

A. They are made up of independent units — the 
neurons — arranged in different ways throughout the 
nervous system. The nerve cell and nerve fibre are 
really parts of the same anatomical unit — the neuron. 

99. What two varieties of nerve fibres have we ? 



26 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. i. Medullatecl or white fibres. 

2. Xon- medullatecl or gray fibres. 

ioo. Describe a medullated nerve fibre. 

A. i . Externally — nucleated sheath of Schwann or 
neurilemma. 

2 . Intermediate — medulla^ sheath or white sub- 

stance. 

3. Internals-axis cylinder — made up of bundles 

of the primitive fibrillae held together by a 
granular element. 

101. Describe a nou-medullated nerve fibre. 

A. Made up in precisely the same manner as the 
medullated fibres, only the medullary sheath or white 
substance of Schwann is lacking. They thus have a gray 
color. 

102. Give function of Ranviers nodes. 

A. They aid the nutrition of the nerve by allowing 
the diffusion of plasma from outside into the axis cylinder. 

103. Describe a nerve trunk or nerve minutely. 

A, Each nerve is made up of bundles of nerve fibres 
'or funiculi^ which have a special sheath, the perineurium. 
All the funiculi are further enclosed in a firm, fibrous 
sheath, the epineurium, which sends in processes of con- 
nective tissue to connect and support the bundles as well 
as the blood vessels, lymph spaces and a few fat globules. 
Between the fibres in the funiculi is a delicate supporting 
tissue, the endoneuriuvi . 

104. What is the invariable course of a nerve fibre? 

A. It proceeds without interruption from its origin in 
a nerve centre to its destination, which may be, (1) the 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



periphery of the body, (2) another nerve centre, or (3) 
the same centre from which it came. 

105. Do nerve fibres ever unite? 

A. They do not. When they anastomose, or come 
together, tney merely lie in apposition with each other — 
interchanging fibres between anastamosing funiculi. 
Anastomosis is therefore a mere rearrangement of fibres, 
so that they may continue on in other funiculi. 

106. What are nerve Collaterals? 

A. Branches passing out at regular angles from each 
individual nerve fibre in the central nervous system. 
These collaterals end in brush like terminations called 
endsbrushes and are chief!}' found in nerve centres. 

107. What is a Plexus and give its function ? 

A. An anastomosis of nerves. A plexus gives: (1) 
Each resultant nerve a wider connection with the spinal 
cord. (2) Each part supplied from a plexus has wider 
relations with the nerve centres, and more extensive 
sympathies; thus groups of muscles are co-ordinated, 
each muscle of the group receiving motor filaments from 
the same parts of the nerve centre. (3) Any part, as a 
limb, is less dependent upon the integrity of any one 
nerve. 

108. How do medullated nerve fibres terminate? 

A. They lose their coverings and the axis cylinder 
breaks up into its elementary fibrillse. 

109. Describe a nerve cell ? 

A. The nerve cell is the nodal and important part of 
the neuron, and from it are given off dendrites and the 
axis-cylinder process or neuraxon. It consists of a mass 



2S OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

of protoplasm, varying in shape and size and contains a 
nucleus and nucleolus. The name strictly applied only 
includes the bod}' of the cell, not the dendrites or the 
neuraxon which finally becomes the nerve fibre. 

no. Describe the location and variation in shape of 
nerve cells ? 

A. The}' are found in all ganglia but very slightly in 
nerve trunks. They may be spherical with an uninter- 
rupted outline as in sympathetic ganglia, or they may be 
caudate with one or more processes, which may taper to 
a point and terminate, anastomose with processes from 
other cells, or become continuous with nerve fibres, as in 
the gray matter of the spinal cord. 

in. How do nerve fibres terminate peripherally ? 

A. In three ways. i. By terminals which pass in 
between epithelial cells known as inter- epithelial arbori- 
zations. 2. By motor plates which lie in the muscles. 
3. By special end organs connected with the senses of 
sight, hearing, smell and taste. 4. By various forms of 
tactile corpuscles, as a. Corpuscles of Pacini, b. Tactile 
corpuscles of Meissner. c. Tactile corpuscles of Krause. 
d. Tactile Menisques. e. Corpuscles of Golgi. 

112. What is Neuroglia ? 

A. It is derived from epiblastic cells, but in its func- 
tion is strictly comparable to the connective tissue w T hich 
supports the special structures of other organs, as the 
lungs. It is closely mingled with all nervous tissue and 
consists of cells giving off a fine network of richly 
branching fibres within which, nerve cells, their dendrites 
and neuraxous are supported. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE BODY. 

113. Describe briefly how the Chemical Composition 
of the human body has been determined ? 

A. By chemical analysis, the solids and fluids of the 
body, can first be reduced to a number of substances 
called proximate principles; these can be resolved into 17 
Chemical Elements, viz. : Oxygen, 72.5; Hydrogen, 9.1 ; 
Nitrogen, 2.50; Carbon, 13.5; Sulphur. .147; Phos- 
phorus, 1. 15; Calcium, 1.3; Sodium, .10; Potassium, 
.026; Magnesium, .0012; Chlorine, .085; Fluorine, .08; 
Iron, .01; Silicon, .0002; traces of Lead, Copper and 
Aluminum. 

114. What Chemical Elements exist as such in the 
body ? 

A. O. H. and N. 

115. How many proximate principles have we in the 
body ? 

A. About 100. 

116. Name- the classes into which all proximate prin- 
ciples are divided ? 

, ^ . f Nitrogenous. T 

A. 1. Organic. < ^ Si. 2. Inorganic. 

& ( N on- Nitrogenous. & 

117. Name the divisions of Nitrogenous organic 
bodies ? 

A. 1. Proteids — form the essential part of all living 
tissue, are called albuminous substances, the 
chief of this class of compounds. 
2. Gelatins — nitrogenous organic bodies whose 



3 o OUTLINED OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

composition does not include them as pro 
teids. 

3. Decomposition Products — chief of which is 

Urea. 

4. Ferments — as Pepsin. 

5. Pigments, etc. — as Bile pigments. 

118. Describe some properties of proteids and name 
some chemical tests for same ? 

A. The}' are amorphous and non-crystallizable — do 
not pass through an animal membrane — variously solu- 
ble in water and acids — usually soluble in alkalies, but 
almost insoluble in alcohol or ether. The chief reactions 
by which they are recognized are: 

1. Xantho-Proteic Reaction — solution of proteid, 

boiled with nitric acid, becomes yellow. 

2. Biuret Reaction — a purple color with trace of 

copper sulphate and excess of potossium or 
sodium hydrate; with ammonia instead of 
the fixed alkalies — a blue color. 

3. Millons Reaction — with a solution of metallic 

mercury in strong nitric acid, give a white, 
then pink and finally red precipitate, due to 
presence of tyrosine in proteid molecule. 

4. Ammonium Sulphate Reaction — with excep- 

tion of peptone the) 7 are entirely precipitated 
from their solutions by saturation with am- 
monium sulphate. 

119. Name varieties of Proteids based on their solu- 
bilities in different reagents. 

(a. Egg Albumin. 
A. 1. Native Albumins < b. Serum Albumin. 

(c. Cell Albumin. 



(a. Acid Albumin. 
} b. 



2. Derived Albumins < b. Alkali Albumin. 

\_c. Caseinogen. 



Globulins < 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 31 

' a. Globulin or Crystallin. 

b. Myosin. 

c. Paraglobulin. 

d. Fibrinogen. 

e. Vitellin. 
[f Globin. 

4. Proteoses — Intermediate substances of digest- 

ion of other proteids, whose ultimate pro- 
duct is peptone. 

5. Peptones — Formed by the action of the di- 

gestive ferments, pepsin and trypsin on other 
proteids and gelatin. 

6. Fibrin. 

7. Coagulated Proteids — Formed by action of 

heat or ferments on other proteids. 

8. Lardacein — Found in organs the seat of amy- 

loid degeneration. 

120. Name varieties of Gelatins. 

A. 1. Gelatin. 2. Mucin. 3. Elastin. 4. Chon- 
drin. 5. Keratin. 6„ Nuclein. 

121. Describe non-nitrogenous organic bodies. 

A. Two great classes. 1. Oils and Fats — Mixtures 
of palmitin, stearin and olein in different 
proportions. Formed by the union of fatt3 r 
acid radicals w 7 ith the triatomic alcohol gly- 
cerin, and are etherial salts of that alcohol. 
Fats are insoluble in water and cold alcohol; 
soluble in hot alcohol, ether or chloroform. 
2. Carbohydrates — Bodies composed of six or 
twelve atoms of carbon with hydrogen and 
oxygen, the two latter elements being in 
the proportion to form water. 

122. Name the main classes of Carbohydrates. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. i. Atnyloses as Starch, Dextrin, Glycogen. 

2. Saccharoses as Saccharose, Lactose, Maltose. 
.3. Glucoses as Dextrose, Laevulose, Inosite. 

123. What is the function of Oxygen in the body ? 

A. The oxidation of oleaginous, albuminous and 
saccharine substances contained in the tissues, to their 
ultimate forms, urea, carbonic acid, water, etc. 

124. Give function of water and per cent found in the 
body. 

A. It acts as a general solvent, makes the tissues 
pliable, aids in the passage of organic and inorganic mat 
ter through animal membranes and thus promotes the 
chemical changes essential to the absorption and assimi- 
lation of food and the elimination of waste products. 
Seventy per cent of the body is w T ater. 

125. Give the uses of Sodium Chloride in the body. 

A. Regulates osmotic action and holds the album- 
inous principles of the blood in solution. It preserves 
the form of blood and tissue cells by regulating the 
amount of water entering into their composition. 

126. What are the Principles of Waste ? 

A. They result from the breaking down of the tis- 
sues. Being of no more use. they are absorbed by the 
blood, carried to the excretory organs and thrown out 
from the body. They are the urates of Sodium, Potas- 
sium, Ammonium and Calcium. Urea, Xanthin, Creatin, 
Creatinin, Cholesterin, T3^rosm, Hippuric acid, and Cal- 
cium Oxalate. 

THE BLOOD. 

127. What is the blood ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. The principal circulating fluid of the body, red, 
viscid and containing nutrient materials for its support. 

128. What is the reaction of the blood and upon what 
does it depend ? 

A. Alkaline. It depends upon the sodium phosphate 
which it contains. 

129. Is the blood always alkaline ? 

A. It does not lose its alkalinity while within the 
body and during life. After death and when shed it 
soon becomes acid. 

130. Give color of blood and name coloring matter. 
A. Red. Haemoglobin. 

131. Does the color of the blood change in different 
parts of the system ? 

A. The shade varies, thus it is bright red in the sys- 
temic arteries and pulmonary veins, and of a dark bluish 
cast in the systematic veins and pulmonary artery. 

132. What causes this change ? 

A. It is due to the oxygen of the air, which uniting 
with the haemoglobin of the red blood cells in the lungs, 
forms oxyhaemoglobin. This gives up some of its oxy- 
gen to the tissues as it passes through the capillaries. It 
therefore returns through the veins partly decomposed 
thus giving venous blood its dark hue. 

133. Give the taste, specific gravity and temperature 
of the blood. 

A. Salty in taste due to the saline matters contained. 
Sp. Gr. 1045- 1062, averages 1055. S P Gr. of corpuscles 
1 105, of plasma 1027. Thus corpuscles sink to the bot- 



34 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

torn of a containing vessel. The temperature varies 
from 98 ° at the surface to 107 in hepatic vein. 

134. Describe the constituents of normal blood, 

A. The liquid portion or, plasma or liquor sanginnis, 
of a pale straw color in which are suspended small solid 
bodies known as red and white blood cells. 

135. What variation do we find in the make up of the 
blood in different parts of the circulation ? 

A. The venous blood contains less O and more CO2 
and is less coagulable than the arterial. During diges- 
tion the blood of the portal vein is richer in sugars, albu- 
minous matters and water and poorer in corpuscular 
elements; and that in the hepatic vein is richer in sugar 
but poorer in albumen, fibrin and fat. 

136. What portion of the body is blood? 

A. One-twelfth to one-fourteenth of the total body 
weight. 

137. What is coagulation and give its use ? 

A. Clotting or solidifying. Nature's method of stop- 
ping hemorrhage. 

138. Name the Fibrin generators. 

A. Fibrinogen, Paraglobulin, Fibrin ferment. 

139. How may coagulation be aided? 

A. 1. Moderate warmth. 2. Rest. 3. Contact with 
foreign matter. 4. Free access of air. 5. Addition of 
less than twice the bulk of water. 

140. How may coagulation be retarded ? 

A. 2. Cold. 2. Contact with living tissues. 3. Im- 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 35 

perfect aeration. 4. By addition of strong acids or alka- 
lies. 5. Inflammatory states of the system. 

141. What is a blood corpuscle and how many kinds ? 

A. Small masses of protop 1 asm with or without cell 
walls or nuclei floating in plasma. Two kinds, red and 
white. 

142. Have we others ? 

A, Small ones called Microcytes, which some think 
are young red corpuscles, others believe them to be worn 
out red cells. 

143. Define red blood cell. 

A. Bi-concave circular disc 3-Q-V0 to Tir Vn of an inch 
in diameter. -L__ of an inch in thickness — without 

nuclei — having a stroma filled w T ith haemoglobin. 

144. Are red blood cells numerous ? 

A. The number of red blood cells in an adult has 
been estimated to present a total surface of 3000 square 
yards. They present a surface for absorbing oxygen in 
the lungs of 80 square yards in each second of time. One 
cubtc millimetre contains from 3 to 5 millions of them. 

145. Whera do they originate? 

A. In the Spleen, red marrow of bones and white 
blood corpuscles, and from microcytes. 

146. What finally becomes of them ? 

A. They are probably disintegrated in the Spleen. 

147. Give their functions. 

A. By virtue of the haemoglobin which they contain 
they take up ox}^gen in the lungs forming oxyhaemo- 



36 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

globlin. In circulating they thus carry oxygen to the 
most remote tissues of the body. They give this oxygen 
to the tissues while passing through the capillaries of 
such tissues. Thus oxidation, tissue break down, and 
the production of heat takes place in every part of our 
bodies. 

148. State the relative number of the red and white 
carpuscles. 

A. In health 400 or 500 to 1. This proportion varies 
greatly and may become from 50 to 1 to 1200 to 1. Dis- 
ease, pregnancy and time after meals all influence the 
relative proportion. 

149. Define a white blood cell or leucocyte. 

A. Spherical mass of protoplasm g-^^- of an inch in 
diameter, without cell wall, and containing a nucleus. 

150. What is diapedesis? 

A . The power which blood corpuscles have, of passing- 
through the walls of blood vessels by virtue of the amoe- 
boid movement they possess. 

151. Describe the relative positions of red and white 
cells in the blood stream in capillaries. 

A. The red move faster than the white and in the 
centre, while the white roll along the walls. 

152. Where do white cells originate? 

A. In lymphatic glands, in the spleen and in connec- 
tive tissue spaces. 

153. Name their functions and final end. 

A. They form red blood corpuscles and are finally 

thus destroyed. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 37 

154. What gases are found in the blood? 

A. Carbonic acid gas. Oxygen and Xitogen. 

155. In what proportion in arterial and venous blood 
do we find these gases ? 

Oxygen. Carbonic Acid. Nitrogen. 

A. Arterial, 20 vol. % 39 vol.% 1 to 2 vols. 

Venous, 8 to 12 vol. % 46 vol.% 1 to 2 vols. 

156. Give four uses of the blood. 

A. 1. To receive and store up food, drink and 
oxygen from the outer world and convey 
them to all parts of the body. 

2. The source from which the tissues of the 

body may take the materials for their 
nutrition, and from which the secreting 
organs can obtain the constituents of their 
secretions. 

3. To absorb refuse matters from all the tissues 

and convey them to the eliminating organs. 

4. To warm and moisten the body. 

157. Name and define 7 pathological conditions of the 
blood. 

A. 1. Plethora — increase in volume or quantity. 

2. A?iaemia — deficiency of red cells and increase 

of water in blood. 

3. Leiicocythemia — increase in white and diminu- 

tion of red cells. 

4. Uraemia — increase in amount of urea in blood. 

5. Glycohaemia — excess of sugar in blood. 

6. Thrombosis and Embolism — clotting of blood 

in vessels and dissemination of coagula. 

7. Lipaemia — excess of fat. 

158. What conditions influence the composition of the 
blood in health ? 



3 S OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. i. Sex. 2. Pregnancy. 3. Age. 4. Tempera- 
ment. 5. Diet. 6. Effects of bleeding. 

THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 

159. What is a circulation and why a circulation of 
blood ? 

A. A circulation is a revolution or the passage of a 
liquid from one point through a certain territory and 
back to the starting point in the case of the blood. The 
circulation of the blood is necessary in order that all tis- 
sues of the body may come in direct contact with it. 

160. When and by whom was the circulation of the 
blood discovered ? 

A. In 16 1 S by Harvey. 

161. What is the Circulatory Apparatus? 

A. A central organ, the (1) Heart, connected to a 
system of closed vessels, the (2) Arteries, (3) Capillaries, 
(4) Veins. 

162. Name and describe two kinds of circulation. 

A. 1. Pulmonic — through right ventricle of heart 
through pulmonary artery to lungs, through 
them and back to left auricle of heart via 
pulmonary veins. 

2. Systemic — from left auricle to left ventricle, 
through aorta and its branches to and 
through capillaries of entire system, and 
back through veins to right auricle of heart 
and to right ventricle. This includes cir- 
culation through portal vein, sometimes 
dignified with name, Portal circulation. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 39 

The Heart. 
163 Define and locate the heart. 

A. The heart is a hollow muscular organ acting as a 
pump to force the blood throughout the body. It is sit- 
uated in the thorax, between the lungs one-third to the 
right, two-thirds to the left of the sternum; the base di- 
rected upward, inward and to the right; the apex directed 
downward, outward and to the left. 

1 64. Give shape, size, weight and support of the heart. 

A. Pyramidal in shape. 5x3^x1^ inches. Weighs 
from 9 to 12 ounces, and is supported by the large vessels 
which are attached to its base. 

165 What is the pericardium? Describe and give 
its use. 

A. The pericardium is a membranous sac, enclosing 
the heart, made up of: 1. An external fibrous mem- 
brane attached by its base to the diaphragm and losing 
its fibres in the external coats of the large vessels at its 
upper extremity or apex. 3. A serous coat which lines 
the fibrous coat and is reflected on to the external surface 
of the heart which it completely invests. The fibrous 
coat protects the heart and limits its movement. The 
serous coat secretes a fluid which allows of a free move- 
ment of its opposed surfaces upon each other without 
friction and thus facilitates the heart's action. 

166. Locate and describe right auricle. 

A. At the right part of the base of the heart viewed 
from the front. Quadrilateral in shape, prolonged at one 
corner by a tongue-shaped portion, the right auricular 
appendix. The interior smooth and lined with endocar- 
dium receives the superior and inferior venae cavae or 



40 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

great veins conveying blood here from the whole body. 
It contains small elevated masses of muscular tissue 
called musculi pectinati. 

167. Locate right ventricle. 

A. Chief part of anterior surface of heart as well as 
small part of posterior surface. Forms right margin of 
heart but takes no part in formation of apex. 

168. Locate left auricle and tell wdiat vessels enter it. 

A. At the left and posterior part of the base of the 
heart. The pulmonary- veins. 

1 69. Locate left ventricle and tell what vessel leaves it. 

A. Occupies chief part of posterior surface and slight 
part of anterior surface. The Aorta, the largest artery 
in the body. 

170. Where are the auriculo ventricular openings and 
what is their use — b}' what are they guarded ? 

A. Openings between the auricles and ventricles to 
allow blood to pass from former to latter. Guarded by 
mitral and tricuspid valves. 

171. Describe the structure of heart and endocardium. 

A. The heart is composed of striated or voluntary 
muscles acting involuntarily. The}' are placed longi- 
tudinally and interlace. In the auricles we find two or 
three layers, which find their point of attachment in the 
fibrous rings which are inserted between each auricle and 
ventricle, In the ventricles we find five to seven layers 
interlaced in the most intricate manner to secure greatest 
strength in least compass. The endocardium is the ser- 
ous membrane lining the heart, covering its valves and 
becoming continuous with the endothelial inner coat of 
the arteries and veins which pass from it. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 41 

172. Describe and give mode of action of mitral and 
tricuspid valves. 

A. The tricuspid valves present three principal cusps, 
the mitral two. In both between the principal cusps are 
smaller ones, so that the tricuspid is composed of six, the 
mitral of four portions. Each portion is triangular in 
shape, its base continuous with bases of neighboring 
portions, and so forms an annular membrane around auri- 
culo ventricular openings, and is fixed to tendinous ring 
which encloses those openings. These cusps are composed 
of fibrous connective tissue strengthened by tendinous 
cords and covered with endocardium. From the ventricu- 
lar surface of these cusps tendinous fibres, the chorda ten- 
dine?, pass to the internal walls of the ventricles where 
they are attached to muscular fibres which project in the 
form of columns — the eolumnez came a. The valves open- 
ing readily by blood pressure from auricles, fold back 
against ventricular walls until ventricles become full when 
they close b}^ blood pressure on their ventricular surfaces 
and are prevented from passing into auricles and allowing 
regurgitation of the blood by the tonic contraction of the 
columnar carnea which draw the chorda: tendinecz taut, 
thus keeping valves closed. 

173. Where and of what use are the semi-lunar valves. 
A. They guard the openings into the right pulmonary 

artery from the right and the aorta from left ventricle 
and prevent the blood from passing out until ventricles 
are full and from passing back from above arteries into 
ventricles. 

174. What are the musculi papillarest 

A. One form of eolumnez carnece which are attached 
at their bases only to ventricular walls and project into 
ventricular cavities like teats. They are attached at 
their free extremitv to chordae tendinae. 



42 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY, 



The Arteries, Veins and Capillaries. 

175. Define and describe an artery. 

A. Cylindrical vessels carrying blood from the heart 
to the capillaries of system or lungs, made up of three 
coats: outer, middle and inner. 

176. Define and describe a vein. 

A. Cylindrical vessels carrying blood from system and 
lungs to heart, made up of three coats; outer middle and 
inner. 

177 What makes the inner coat of an artery ? 

A. A single layer of endothelial cells placed upon a 
basement membrane — a continuation of the endocardium. 

178. What makes the inner coat of a vein ? 

A. Same endothelial tissue that lines arteries, because 
continuous with endocardium. 

179. Name and what are the functions of the outer 

coat of arteries ? 

' 1. To give under sudden pressure. 

2. Equalizes current by elastic recoil. 

3. Adapt arteries to whole amount of 
blood contained at different times. 

A. xuastic Coat ^ ^ Return to normal size when dimin- 
ished in diameter. 
I 5. Adapt arteries to various movements of 
L body. 

1 So. What is function of middle coats of arteries ? 

f 1. Regulates supply to parts according 
to their needs. 
, _ , 1 ~ ^ \ 2. Adapts calibre of vessel to amount 

A. Muscular Coat i of blood contained. 

| 3. Causes contraction of end when cut 
I and so stops hemorrhage. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 43 

181. Of valves of veins ? 

A. 1. To prevent back flow of blood when pressure 
is applied to veins from without as in ex- 
tremities by muscular action. 
2. They thus aid onward flow by means of col- 
lateral veins. 

182. Describe Capillaries. 

A. Small vessels composed solely of endothelial tis- 
sue — a continuation of inner coat of arteries and connect- 
ing arteries with veins. Diam T -Viy °f an inch. 

183. How are arteries and veins supplied with blood ? 

A.- By a network of small vessels contained in their 
own walls called collectively vasa vasorum. 

184. What is meant by Systole and Diastole ? 

A. The Systole — Contraction of auricles or ventricles. 
The Diastole — Dilitation of auricles or ventricles. 

1 85. Where does contraction of heart begin and why ? 

A. At the base — upper part of auricles. To shut off 
blood from venae cavae and pulmonary veins, and that 
the full auricles may discharge their blood into ventricles- 
and so completely distend them. 

186. Describe the contraction of auricles and tell why 
they contract before ventricles. 

A. A sudden, quick contraction from above down- 
ward which sends blood with sufficient force to distend 
ventricles and by reflex currents to close mitral and 
tricuspid valves. Ventricles cannot contract until full,. 
and blood in auricles is needed to fill them. 

187. Describe Ventricular contraction. 



44 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. Immediately follows contraction of auricles, but is 
slower and more forcible. 

1 88. What change takes place in the shape of ventri- 
cles during contraction ? 

A. The left V. becomes somewhat broader — the right 
V. slightly shorter. 

189. What is the Cardiac Period? 

A. The Cardiac cycle or whole time of the heart's 
action and repose, comprising the articular contraction, 
ventricvlar contraction and period of repose. 

190. What part of the cardiac period is occupied by 
the contraction of the auricles, ventricles and pause ? 

A. Contraction of Auricles .1 
" Ventricles .3 

Repose 4 

.8 = I of a second. 

191. What is taking place in the heart during auric- 
ular, ventricular contraction and period of repose ? 

. A r^f \ a ' Blood goes to Ventricles. 

A. Aur. Cont. ^ Ventricles distended. 

{a. Relieving Auricles. 
Vent Cont J ^* Closing Auriculo Ventricular Valves. 

I c. Opening Semi Lunar Valves. 

Id. Forcing blood out. 

(a. Closing Semi Lunar Valves. 

I b. Dilating Auricles. 

! c. Relaxing Ventricles. 
Xepose - "S c i m Opening Auriculo Ventricular Valves. 

J e. Filling Ventricles. 

^ f. Distension Auricles. 

192. What is the Cardiac impulse? 

A, Made by the apex of the heart striking the inner 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 45: 

wall of the chest, producing a slight shock. 

193. What are the heart sounds ? 

A. Two sounds heard when the ear is placed over 
the region of the heart followed by a pause or period of 
silence. 

194. What makes the first sound — where is it heard, 
and wiry ? 

A. A long, dull lubb sound, caused by closure and 
vibration of auriculo ventricular valves and the contrac- 
tion of muscular walls of ventricles. Heard in fifth 
intercostal space, 1 inch to left of sternum, 2 inches be- 
low nipple, because apex of heart striking chest wall at 
this point communicates sound to chest wall, and so to 
listening ear. 

195. The second sound where heard and why ? 

A. Short sharp dap sound, made by closure of semi- 
lunar valves and reflux of blood against them in aorta 
and pulmonary artery, Heard in second intercostal space 
to the right of seernum, carried there by current of blood 
in aorta which there closely approaches inner wall of 
chest. 

196. What takes place during first and second sound 
of heart and pause ? 

fi. Contracting Ventricles. 

I 2. First part dilation Auricles. 

A. ist sound \ 3. Tension Aur. -Vent, valves. 

I 4. Opening Semi- Lunar valves. 

L5. Forcing blood out. 

( 1. Tension Semi-Lunar. 

2nd SOUnd J 2 - Second part dilation Aur. 

j 3. Relaxing Vent. 

[4. Opening Aur. Vent, valves. 

( I. Distension Auricles. 

Pause \ 2 - Contraction Auricles. 

/ 3. Distension Ventricles. 



46 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



197. Give functions of auricles and ventricles. 

A. Of auricles — to gather blood to completely fill 
ventricles. Of ventricles — to force blood through sys- 
tem and lungs. 

198. What is frequency of heart's action? 

A. From 140 at birth to 65 in old age. Contracts 70 
to 75 times per minute in healthy adult. Influenced by 
age, exercise, posture, digestion. 

199. What kind of flow of blood leaves the heart, and 
why ? 

A. Spurting, forcible flow, that the blood may be pro- 
pelled through the body. 

200. Name and describe nerves of heart. 

\ ^j 1 ? rk \ regulating 



1. Local ganglia in heart- Bidder - °. 

& & / Ludwie rytnm. 



/ Ludwig 

2. Pnemogastric or check nerve. 

3. Spmpathetic, or accelerator nerve. 



201. What constantly stimulates the muscles of the 
heart to contraction. 

A. The continual passage of blood over the endo- 
thelial lining of heart. The sensory nerve endings 
therein are thus stimulated, sending constant reflex im- 
pulses to the motor ganglia. 

202. How are the heart muscles supplied with blood 
for their nutrition ? 

A. Coronary arteries — filled by regurgitation of blood 
ageinst closed semi-lunar valves. 

203. Give the capacity of the different parts of the 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 47 

vascular system in relation to each other. 

.i. The capillaries can hold 800 times as much blood 
as the aorta. Veins hold more than corresponding arter- 
ies. The arteries increase in capacity as they go from the 
heart, while veins diminish in area as they go toward the 
heart. 

204. What is blood pressure ? 

A. The constant pressure which is kept upon the 
blood stream by the action of the heart and the walls of 
blood vessels. 

205. What is the blood pressure in the human aorta 
and in the aorta of a horse ? 

A. In human aorta, 4 pounds, four ounces; in horse, 
11 pounds, 4 ounces. 

206. What nerves control blood vessels ? 
A. Vaso motor nerves. 

207. Have they any influence on blood pressure? 

A. They have, as the}' are distributed throughout the 
walls of arteries, arterioles, veins and capillaries. They 
belong to the so-called sympathetic system. The vaso 
motor centre in the medulla oblongata, by sending motor 
influences through them, governs the tension of the whole 
vascular system. 

208. How will stimulation of the vaso motor centre 
affect blood pressure ? 

A. It contracts the blood vessels and so raises the 
pressure. 

209. How will depression of the centre affect blood 
pressure ? 



48 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. It dilates blood vessels and so lowers pressure. 

210. Is blood pressure affected by asphyxia? 

A. The increased CO2 in blood stimulates vaso motor 
centre and so increases blood pressure. 

2ii. Describe the physical force or key to the circu- 
lation. 

A. All liquids yield to pressure and the pressure de- 
pends on the force from behind and the ease of escape. 

212. Compare flow of blood in arteries, veins and cap- 
illaries. 

A. Fastest in arteries, slower in veins, slowest in cap- 
illaries. 

213. Name important arteries. 

A. Aorta, Pulmonary, Internal and External Iliac, 
Femoral. Carotid. 

214. Name important veins. 

A. Inferior and Superior Vena Cava, Pulmonary and 
Jugular. 

215. Give function of arteries. 

A. To earn- blood from heart to capillaries of entire 
body. 

216. Give function of veins. 

A. To carry blood from capillaries of entire body to 
heart. 

217. What is the Pulse? 

A. The wave like motion imparted to the blood in 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 49 

the arteries by the contraction of the ventricles of the 
heart. 

218. Is the pulse more rapid in males or females ? 
A. In females. 

219. Does the position of the body affect the pulse ? 

A. When erect the pulse is more rapid than when 
laying down. 

220. What other things influence its rapidity ? 

A. Respiratory changes, exercise, anger, fear and sim- 
ilar conditions. 

221. What stimulates heart muscle to contract ? 

A. The blood flowing over the endothelial lining. 
The sensory nerve endings are stimulated and send reflex 
impulses to the motor ganglion. 

222. What speed does the blood in circulation attain ? 

A. 35 feet per second, the length of each pulse wave 
being about g)4 feet. 

223. Give four forces of blood in circulation. 

A. 1. Systole and Diastole of heart. 

2. Elastic and muscular coats of arteries. 

3. Vital capillary force. 

4. Muscular pressure on veins w r ith valves, and 

rythmic contraction of veins. 

224. Give four proofs of a circulation. 

A. 1. Ligature around limb very tight 'will prevent 
blood from entering. 

2. Wounds of arteries — flow may be stopped bv 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



pressure between cut end and heart. Wounds 
in veins — flow may be stopped by pressure 
beyond seat of injury. 

3. Rusults of injecting plaster of Paris in solution. 

4. Passage of blood cells seen through small ar- 

teries, capillaries and veins in mesentery of 
living frog under the microscope. 

225. Give an idea of the amount of work performed 
by the heart. 

A. Every day it puts forth enough force to lift one 
ton one hundred and twenty-four feet. 

RESPIRATION. 

226. What is Respiration? 

A. Bringing the atmospheric air into the air cells of 
lungs in order that its oxygen may be there absorbed by 
the blood. The carbonic acid gas thrown off by the 
blood is absorbed by air in air cells and thrown out of 
body. 

227. What is necessary to life? 
A. Sufficient oxygen. 

22S. What part does the blood play in Respiration? 

A. Carries CO2 to lungs and in exchange absorbs 
oxygen which it carries to all parts of the body. 

229. Name the organs of Respiration. 

A. Larynx. Trachea, Bronchi, Right and Left Lungs. 

230. Describe the Larynx. 

A. The organ of speech and upper part of passage 
that leads only to lungs. Composed of cartilages united 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 5 r 

"by ligaments and muscles and lined with mucous mem- 
brane. Covered by cartilaginous lid — the Epiglottic, 
which is attached at base of tongue and opens and shuts 
as we breathe. The true and false vocal cords are situ- 
ated in the upper part and extend from before backward 
— the former composed of tendinous material, the latter 
of folds of mucous membrane. 

231. Describe the Trachea. 

A, The windpipe. It extends from the fifth cervical 
vertebra to the third dorsal vertebra, 4 to 4*2 inches 
long, : ; 4 of an inch In diameter. A. tube of fibro elastic 
membrane, lined with mucous membrane and containing 
16 to 20 cartilaginous rings inserted in its walls. These 
rings extend from before backward two-thirds of the cir- 
cumference. The back third is composed of muscular 
fibres which are attached to the free ends of the rings and 
by their contraction keep the rings tense and so keep the 
trachea patent, or open for the passage of air. By the 
contraction of the fibres the ends of the rings are brought 
together, thus diminishing the circumference of the 
trachea. 

232. Describe the Bronchi and Bronchial Tubes. 

A . The trachea divides opposite the third dorsal ver- 
tebra into the two bronchi, right and left, precisely simi- 
lar in structure to the trachea. These bronchi, on enter- 
ing the substance of the lungs, divide into smaller and 
smaller branches which differ in structure from the 
bronchi in the loss of the cartilaginous rings and the 
extension of the muscular fibres to form a complete riuo\ 
The smaller tubes penetrate every part of the lungs anc i 
end in the small subdivisions called lobules. The bronchi 
and bronchial tubes are lined zvith ciliated epithelium. 

233. Describe the Air Cells. 



52 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. The bronchial tubes, on entering a lobule, divide 
and subdivide into still more minute tubes — the walls 
formed finally of a thin membrane of elastic and areolar 
tissue lined with squamous epithelium not provided with 
cilia. Each of these minute terminal branches widen 
out into pouch-like dilations which are called air cells. 
The walls of the air cells contain a network of capillary 
blood vessels so that nothing interposes between the 
blood in those capillaries and the air in the air cells but 
the walls of the air cells and the capillaries. 

234. Describe in full the lungs. 

A. Occupy the greater part of the Thorax'. Com- 
posed of spongy elastic tissue, some muscular fibres, 
bronchial tubes, bronchioles, air cells, arteries, veins, 
capillaries and lymphatics. They are conical in shape, 
of a pink color, in appearance solid. In reality they are 
hollow organs, made up of lobules, which are aggrega- 
tions of air cells, each of which has direct connection 
with the outer air by the bronchioles, bronchi and 
trachea. 

235. Describe the Pleura and give its use. 

A. Each lung is covered with a serous membrane, a 
closed sac, the inner layer of which covers the lungs 
closely, the outer layer is reflected over the inner wall of 
the thorax. Between the two layers is a small amount 
of fluid which prevents friction during the expansion 
and contraction of the lungs in respiration. 

236. Describe the blood supply of the lungs. 

A. The Pulmonary artery bringing venous blood to 
be purified. The Bronchial artery which brings blood 
for the nutrition of the tissues of the lungs. 

237. How are the lymphatics arranged in the lungs? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 5$ 



A. In three sets. 1. Irregular lacunae in the walls 
of the alveoli or air cells. 2. Irregular anastomosing 
spaces in the walls of the bronchi. 3. Lymph spaces in 
the pulmonary pleura. The lymphatic vessels from all 
these irregular sinuses pass in toward the root of the 
lungs to reach the bronchial glands. 

238. Describe the nerves of the lungs. 

A. These nerves are traced from the anterior and 
posterior pulmonary plexuses, which are formed by 
branches of the vagus and sympathetic. They follow 
the course of the vessels and bronchi. Small ganglia 
are found in the walls of the latter. 

239. Define Inspiration. 

A. By a muscular act the chest is enlarged. The 
pressure on the outside is increased, the air pressure in 
the lungs diminished. To equalize this pressure fresh 
air rushes into the lungs through trachea and bronchi. 

240. Define Expiration. 

A. By elastic recoil of lungs and chest walls the 
chest cavity and lungs are diminished in size and some 
of the air in lungs is forced out. 

241. Describe the Thorax. 

A. Large upper cavity of body. Floor, diaphragm, 
Anterior wall, sternum, intercostal cartilages and ribs 
with muscles covering them. Side wall, ribs and mus- 
cles. Posterior, spinal column, ribs attached and 
muscles. Conical in shape, apex up. 

242. How and by what is the thorax enlarged ? 

A. In vertical diam. by contraction and descent of 
Diaphragm. In antero post. diam. by contraction of 



54 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



external intereostals, serratus posticus sup. levatores 
costarum and portions of internal intereostals between 
costal cartilages. These by their contraction elevate 
the ribs. 

243. What is meant by forced inspiration and expira- 
tion ? 

A. Extraordinary efforts at enlarging the chest and 
diminishing its size as in violent exercise. 

244. What muscles are used in forced inspiration? 

A. In addition to muscles used in answer to question 
No. 242, the scaleni, sterno-mastoid, trapezius, serratus 
magnus and pectorales muscles. 

245. What muscles are used in forced expiration ? 

A. Abdominal muscles, internal intereostals, triangu- 
laris sterni, serratus posticus inferior and quadratus lum- 
borum muscles. 

246. Name and describe types of respiration. 

A. 1. Abdominal in children, muscles of abdomen 
chiefly used. 

2. Inferior Costal in men, lower chest muscles 

chiefly used. 

3. Superior Costal in women, upper chest muscles 

chiefly used. 

247. What are respiratory sounds? 

A. Sounds or murmurs heard by the listening ear 
when applied to chest walls, caused by friction of air as 
it rushes in against the walls of trachea and bronchial 
tubes called 1. Bronchial breathing, and 2. Vesicular 
breathing — sound caused by friction of air in air cells. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 55 

248. Give capacity of lungs. 

A. About 320 cu. in. Varies with age, stature and 
weight. 

249. Give number of respirations per minute and 
relation to pulse. 

A. In health 14 to 18 per minute, in ratio of r to 4 
or 5 with pulse teat. Influenced by sex, age, posture 
and exertion. 

250. How much work is done by the respiratory 
muscles daily ? 

A. 21 foot tons in 24 hours. 

251. How much air is respired by an adult daily ? 

A. 686,000 cubic inches. A laborer will inspire and 
expire 1,568,390 cubic inches daily. 

252. Give three uses for muscular tissue of lungs. 
A. 1. To assist in expiration. 

2. To regulate quantity of air admitted to each 

part according to quantity of blood in the 
part. 

3. To aid in expelling collections of mucous. 

253. Give composition of atmospheric air. What is 
used in lungs ? 

A. By weight, nitrogen 75 parts, oxygen 25 parts, 4 
to 5 volumes of CO2 in 10,000. Traces of ammonia and 
sulphuretted hydrogen. Oxygen is abstracted in lungs. 

254. Name and define terms used to express quantity 
of air breathed. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



i. Tidal air — quantity changed in normal 
breathing, 30 cu. inches. 

2. Complemental air — quantity over and above 

tidal air that can be inspired, no cu. in. 

3. Reserve air — the amount that remains in 

chest after ordinary expiration but which 
can be expelled by forcible expiration, 100 
cu. inches. 

4. Residual air — amount which remains after 

forcible expiration, which cannot be ex- 
pelled, 100 cu. inches. 

255. What changes take place in air after breathing ? 

A. 1. Loss of oxygen, 5 cu. in. to 100 cu. in. of air. 

2. Gain of CO2 4-5 cu. in. to 100 cu. in. of air. 

3. Increase of watery vapor and organic matter. 

4. Elevation of temperature. 

5. Increase or decrease cf nitrogen 

6. Loss in volume. 

7. Gain in ammonia. 

256. How do these changes take place ? 

A. By virtue of the law of diffusion of gases. 

257. What changes take place in the blood after 
breathing ? 

A. 1. Changes in color from purple to scarlet. 

2. Gains O. 

3. Loses CO2. 

4. Becomes cooler. 

5. Coagulates better. 

MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION. 

258. Explain Respiratory changes in the tissues ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 57 



A. The oxygen tension in the tissues is less than the 
oxygen tension in the oxyhaemoglobin of the blood cor- 
puscles — oxygen thus is given to the tissues, seized by 
their protoplasm and used in anabolic or building up 
processes. Katabolism or breaking down of tissues pro- 
duces CO2. The tension of CO2 in the blood is small, 
therefore it passes into the blood freely from the tissues. 

259. How does the diaphragm act ? 

A. 1. In inspiration it contracts and descends, push- 
ing abdominal contents and walls before it. 
2. In expiration it relaxes and is pushed upward 
by contraction of abdominal walls on intes- 
tines and so on it. 

260. What is sighing ? 

A. Prolonged inspiration, followed by sudden expira- 
tion producing sound. 



261. What is hiccough 



A. Sudden inspiration due to spasmodic action of the 
diaphragm causing quick sound. 

262. What is coughing ? 

A. Prolonged inspiration, sudden expiration against 
closed glottis, resulting in expulsion of foreign body in 
air passages, and noisy sound. 

263. What is sneezing ? 

A. Long inspiration, sudden expiration through nose 
to drive mucous there out of nostrils; loud, shrill sound. 

264. What is laughing ? 

A. Series of short rapid expirations. 

265. What is yawming? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



./. Involuntary inspiration accompanied by stretch- 
ing of muscles of palate and lower jaw. 

266. What nerve centre controls respiration, and 
where is it situated ? 

A. Respiratory centre in medulla oblongata. 

267. Name nerves of respiration. 

A. 1. Phrenies and Intercostal-motor. 

2. Vagus-motor, sensory and vaso motor influ- 
ences. 

26S. How does the respiratory centre act ? 

A. Automaticalh' mostly, but at times reflexly. 

269. How is the respiratory centre stimulated ? 

A. By the absence of sufficient oxygen in the blood 
circulating in it. 

270. What is Dyspnoea ? 

A. Difficult breathing due to lack of sufficient O in 
blood. 

271. What is Apnoea ? 

A. Inhibition of normal respirator}' movements after 
-everal deep, voluntary and rapid inspirations. 

272. What effects are produced by improper ventila- 
tion ? 

A. Uneasy sensations, as headache, languor, a sense 
of oppression, fainting, due to the lack of oxygen and 
presence of too much CO2, organic matter, etc. 

273. How much air per head should be allowed in 
sleeping apartments and how much fresh air supplied 
to keep it pure ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. 2,000 cubic feet per head allowed, and 1,500 to 
2,000 cubic feet of fresh air per head per hour. 

274. What effect has respiration on the circulation ? 

A. 1. Inspiration aids circulation and increases arte- 
rial tension. 
2. Ordinary expiration has no effect upon it but 
extraordinary expiration obstructs the circu- 
lation. 

275. Give symptoms of asphyxia by stages. 

A. 1. Excessive and difficult breathing. 

2. Convulsions. 

3. Exhaustion and death. 

276. Describe the conditions of the vascular system 
in asphyxia. 

A. 1. More or less interference with the passage of 
the blood through the pulmonary blood 
vessels. 

2. Accumulation of blood in the right side of the 

heart and in the systemic veins. 

3. Circulation of impure blood in all parts of the 

body. 

277. Describe the effects 011 man of alteration in 
atmospheric pressure due to high altitudes. 

A. Bleeding from the nose, dyspnoea and vascular 
derangements. Life may be maintained at an altitude of 
15,000 feet where the oxygen pressure is one-half that of 
ordinary atmosphere. Any pressure less than this pro- 
duces alterations ia the relation of the gases in the blood. 
Sudden exposure to such decreased oxygen pressure pro- 
duces convulsions and the gases are set free in the blood 
-els. 



60 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

FOOD AND DIGESTION. 

278. What is the object of Digestion ? 

A. To bring the materials of the food into such a 
condition that they may be taken up by the blood and 
lymphatics and so supply the wants of the system. 

279. How many kinds of food ? 
A. Organic and Inorganic. 

2 So. Define them. 

A. Organic foods, those derived from living matter. 
Inorganic, mineral and saline matter and water. 

281. How many kinds of organic food and define 
them ? 

A. 1. Nitrogenous, those containing C. H. O. N. and 
some phosphorus and sulphur. 
2. Non-nitrogenous, those containing H. O. C. 
but no N. 

282. Name the nitrogenous foods. 

A. 1. Proteids — 1. Albumen, 2. Casein, 3. Myosin, 
4. Legumen, 5. Gluten. 
2. Gelatins — Elastin, Gelatin, Chondrin. 

283. Name the non-nitrogenous foods. 

A. 1. Amyloid, saccharine or carbohydrates contain- 
ing H. O. C. and H. and O. in proportion 
to form water e. g. starch, sugar. 

2. Oils and fats, H. O. C, but O. is lacking in the 
proportion to form water with the H. 

284. What common names do we give three foods 
containing nitrogen ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 61 

A. Beef, Mutton, Pork. 

285. What substance will do alone for diet, and why? 

A. Milk. It contains all the constituents of the vari- 
ous foods we need and in the right proportion. 

Nitrogenous — Albumens — Casein and lact. albumin. 

t. t ., f Amvloicl — Milk Sugar or Lactose. 

Non-nitrogenous j p ^ ^ 0ils _ Fat \ lobules . 

Salts — NA CI, also water. 

286. Describe milk globules and the effect of churn- 
ing on them. 

A. They are small oil globules which float in the 
clear fluid milk plasma, and give the white color to milk. 
They consist of fat or butter, contained in an envelope of 
casein. Churning breaks this coating of casein and the 
butter globules run together, forming the mass butter as 
we use it. 

287. By what foods are carbo hydrates supplied? 
A. The cereals, vegetables, fruits. 

288. From what do we obtain our fats and oils? 

A. Suet of beef and mutton, lard from pork, butter 
from milk. 

289. Are green fruits necessary for health and why? 

A. Yes. Because of the fruit acids and salts they 
contain. A lack of those principles in our diet gives rise 
to a scorbutic condition, e. %., scurvy. 

290. From what do we obtain our liquid food ? 

A. Tea, Coffee, Beer, Ale, Wine, Spirits, Cider, Cocoa. 

291. What effect has cooking on food ? 



62 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY 



A, Makes it easily digestible. 

f Albumen, coagulated. 
Flesh is thus changed: - Fibrin, solidified. 

(Tendons, etc., gelatinized. 
Vegetables are softened, their starch grains swollen 
and bursted, albuminous matter coagulated, saccharine 
and saline matters removed. 

292 Name the digestive organs. 

A. 1. Alimentary canal. 

Mouth ) Duodenum 

Small Intestines -Jejunum 
Pharnyx ) Ileum 

Oesophagus \ Coecum 

Large Intestines - Colon 
Stomach 1 Rectum 

2. Accessory Organs. 

Teeth Pancreas 

C Parotid Liver 

Salivary glands - Submaxillary Spleen 
( Sublingual - 

293. What is mastication ? 

A. Crushing, grinding, pulverizing and insalivating 
food, by the movement of teeth of lower jaw against 
those of upper jaw, assisted by the simultaneous move- 
ments of tongue and cheeks. Lower jaw is moved 
against upper, as a fixed body by masticatory muscles. 

294. What muscles act in mastication ? 

A. 1. Closing jaws — temporal, masseter and internal 
pterygoid. 

2. Opening jaws — Digastric and muscles passing 

from os hyoides to lower jaw. 

3. Grinding or side to side movement. — By alter- 

nate action of pterygoid muscles. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 63 

4. Lower jaw pulled forward — both external 

pterygoids acting together. 

5. Lower jaw pulled backward — Digastric and 

Hyoid muscles act. 

295. Does the tongue aid in mastication ? 

A. It keeps the food between the teeth and is aided 
in this by muscles of lips and buccinator muscles. 

296. What is the function of the Temporo-maxillary 
Fibro-Cartilage ? 

A. 1. As an elastic pad to distribute the pressure 
caused by the action of the masticatory 
muscles. 
2. As a joint surface or socket for the condyle of 
the lower jaw when it is drawn forward out 
of the glenoid cavity by the external ptery- 
goid muscle. 

297. What is Insalivation? 

A. The mixing of the food with the saliva in masti- 
cation. 

Salivary Glands, Pharynx and Oesophagus. 

2.98. Name, locate and describe salivary glands. 

A. 1. Parotid, below and in front of external ear-true 
salivary gland. 

2. Submaxillary, below the jaw in submaxillary 

triangle, muco salivary or mixed gland. 

3. Sublingual, in .floor of mouth close to symphy- 

sis of jaw, true mucous gland. In structure 
all are compound tubular glands, made of 
lobules, the pouched ends of the smallest 
tubes containing the proper secretig cells of 
the glands. 



64 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

299. Give nerve supplies of salivary glands. 

A. 1. Parotid-branches of facial, which join auriculo- 
temporal branches of 5th pair of cranial 
nerves. Branches of sympathetic. 

2. Submaxillar}* — By chorda tympani derived 

from facial. Also by filaments from the su- 
perior cervical ganglion of sympathetic and 
from submaxillary ganglion. 

3. Sublingual — By same nerves that supply sub- 

maxillar}*. 
The Chorda tympani contains (1) Secretory fibres. 

2) Vaso Dilator fibres. 
The Sympathetic contains (1) True Secretory; 

(2) Vaso constrictor fibres. 

500. If the chords tympani were cut what would be 
the effect on the salivary glands ? 

A. The secretion of saliva would be diminished. 

301. If the same nerves were stimulated what result? 
A. Increased blood supply and secretion. 

302. If the sympathetic were stimulated? 
A. Decrease in secretion and blood supply. 

303. Does increased secretion depend upon increased 
blood supply or increased nerve impulse to glands ? 

A. Increase in nerve impulses. 

304. Compare pressure in excretory ducts of these 
glands with that in Carotid arteries. 

A. It is twice as great in ducts owing to the secre- 
tory power of the glandular cells. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 65 

305. Do changes in the temperature occur in these 
glands ? 

A. Yes, the temperature rises during secretion and 
becomes greater than that of arterial blood. 

306. How does the presence of food in the mouth 
stimulate secretion ? 

A. By reflex action through the lingual branch of 
the glosso pharyngeal and the inferior maxillary branch 
of the fifth nerve which transfers the stimulus to the cen- 
tre in the medulla. 



3 



07. Describe Saliva. 



A. Pure saliva from parotid is clear watery fluid, 
alkaline in reaction sp. gr. 1004 to 1008. In mouth con- 
tains epithelial cells, mucus, etc., and is called mixed 
saliva. 



f Water, 


994.1 parts 


| Ptyalin, 


1.4 


Mixed saliva chem. comp. \ Salts, 


2.29 '• 


| Fats, 


trace. 


1 Proteids, 


2.13 " 



30S. What kind of a ferment is Ptyalin? 

A. A Diastatic or amylolytic ferment or one that has 
the power to act on starch in snch a manner as to change 
it to dextrin and to change the dextrin to sugar. 

309. What is a ferment ? 

A. Any substance which w T hen brought in contact 
with another substance changes its character, without 
itself undergoing change or suffering diminution. 

310. To what is the action of saliva due? 

A. Mainly to the ferment Ptyalin which it contains. 



66 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



311. Name two uses of saliva. 

f c. Keeps mouth moist. 

A. 1. Mechanical]*- Delves sapid substances. 

j c. Makes food into sort mass, easily 
[ swallowed. 

2. Chemical, Ptyalin converts starch}' matters 
into sugars. 

312. How may chemical action be aided? 

A. 1. By moderate heat. 

2. Alkaline medium. 

3. Removal of changed material. 

313. How much saliva is secreted in 24 hours ? 
A. One to three pints. 

314. What will stimulate action of salivary glands ? 

A. 1. Irritation of mucous membrane of mouth or 
stomach. 

2. Movement of masticator}' muscles. 

3. Sight or smell of food: hearing food prepared. 

4. Mental emotions. 



0^. 



Why do we boil starchy foods i 



A. To break the cellulose envelope of the starch 
granule and so allow the ptyalin to come in direct con- 
tact with the starch. 

316. Describe the structure of the tongue? 

A. A muscular organ covered by mucous membrane. 
Its bulk is made up of intrinsic muscles — the linguales 
which bring about its smaller movements. The extrinsic 
muscles fix it to surrounding parts and perform its larger 
movements. 

317. Name and describe the papillae of the tongue. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 67 

A. I. Circaunvallate — 8 to 10 in number — in two 
V shaped lines at base of tongue — circular 
elevations with central depression sur- 
rounded by circular fissure and ring. 

2. Fungiform — over sides, tip and amid dorsal 

regions — narrower at base than at summit. 

3. Conical or Filiform — scattered freely over 

whole surface. 

318. What are taste goblets? 

A. Numerous fusiform gustatory cells found in the 
centre of the circumvallate papillae terminating in fine 
spikes, like cilia which project on the free surface. 

319. What is the pharnyx ? 

A. Portion of alimentary canal which lies between 
mouth and oesophagus, constructed of series of three 
muscles, called constrictors of pharynx, bound together 
by connective tissue and lined with mucous membrane 
continuous with that lining mouth. 

320. Describe tonsils. 

A. Between anterior and posterior arches of soft 
palate, one on each side; each consists of an elevation of 
mucous membrane with 15 to 20 orifices, leading into 
crypts, in which are. nodules of adenoid tissue. The 
viscid secretion that exudes from above orifices lubricates 
bolus of food as it passes in swallowing. 

321. Describe oesophagus or gullet. 

A. Narrowest part of alimentary canal. Muscular 
and mucous tube, 9 to 10 inches long, from lower end of 
pharynx to cardiac orifice of stomach. 
\ 1. Muscular. 
Has three coats- 2. Sub-mucous. 
' S- Mucous. 



63 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

322. What is deglutition ? 

A. Act of swallowing food after mastication. A re- 
flex muscular act. 

^23. Describe deglutition. 

A. 1. Mouth is closed by orbicularis oris muscle. 

2 . Jaws brought together by masticatory muscles. 

3. Tip, middle and root of tongue suceessively 

press against hard palate and food is thrown 
backward. 

4. Coincidently levator palati draws soft palate 

up and back, closing posterior opening of 
nasal cavities. The muscles of larynx close 
rima glottidis, and the epiglottis is pressed 
firmly over the opening. 

5. The food passes the anterior palatine arch and 

cannot return to mouth because of the con- 
tracting of the palato-glossi muscles in the 
ant-pillars of fauces. 

6. The bolus of food is seized and carried on by 

the successive dilatation and contraction of 
the superior constrictors of the pharynx, 
then of the middle, and lastly of the infer- 
ior constrictors. 

7. It reaches the oesophagus and is carried 

through it by the peristaltic action of its 
outer longitudinal and inner circular striped 
muscular layers. 

324. What prevents food from going into trachea? 

A. The epiglottis, which acts as a lid or cover to 
larynx, and the upper surface of which acts as an inclined 
plane along which bolus of food slides. 

325. What kind of an act is deglutition ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 69 

A. A muscular act, purely as it can take place in op- 
position to the force of gravity. 

326. Describe the nerve mechanism of deglutition. 

A. It is a reflex act — nerve centre for harmonizing 
action of muscles is in medulla. 

f Branches of 5th Cerebral to soft palate. 
Sensorv J Branches °f glosso-pharyngeal to tongue and pharynx, 
j Superior laryngeal branch of vagus to epiglottis 
[ and glottis. 

Motor— Branches of 5th to masticator}- muscles, part of 
digastric and mylo-hyoid muscles. 
Facial — to levator palati. 
Glosso- pharyngeal — to muscles of pharynx. 
Vagus — to muscles of larynx. 
Hypo-glossal — to muscles of tongne. 

THE STOMACH. 

327. I^ocate and describe stomach. 

. A. Situated in left hypochondriac, epigastric and 
part of right hypchondraic regions. The principal or- 
gan of digestion. A pear shaped dilatation of alimen- 
tary canal placed between and continuous with oesopha- 
gus at its cardiac orifice, and small intestine at its pyloric 
orifice. 

f 1. External or Peritoneal. 

Has four coats* \ 2 ' ^ uscu ^ ar — longitudinal, circular, oblique. 

' 3. Submucous. 

1^4- Mucous. 

328. Tell about the movements of the stomach. 

A. The empty stomach lies with its greater curvature 
downward, its lesser upward. The full stomach swings 
the greater curvature forward against the wall of the 



OUTLINES OP PHYSIOLOGY. 



abdomen, and the lesser curvature becomes approximated 
to the spinal column. 

329. Have we any other movements of the stomach? 

A. We have the movements of the walls of the stom- 
ach: 1. A churning movement, in which the walls glide 
over the food, moistening it with gastric juice and break- 
it up. 2. The peristaltic movement by which the food 
is pushed through the pylorus into the duodenum. 

330. Describe peculiarity of mucous membrane lining 
stomach. 

A. In dilated state is smooth, pink and velvety. In 
contracted state is thrown into numerous folds or rugae, 
and presents a peculiar honey-combed appearance. 

331. Describe glands of stomach. 

A. 1. Peptic, found throughout stomach, except at 
Pylorus. Two or three tubes open into one duct which 
forms about one-third of length of tube and opens on the 
surface. The remainder of tube is divided into the neck 
and dilated end — the body. The duct is lined with col- 
umnar epithelium; the neck contains parietal cells which 
secrete hydrochloric acid ; the cubical cells in body of 
glands secrete pepsin. 

2. Pyloric, found near pylorus. Tubes larger than 
in peptic glands; wavy and convoluted; devoid of parie- 
tal cells. Central cells probably secrete mucus only. 

332. What is gastric juice ? and give its composition. 

A. The digestive fluid secreted actively when food is 
introduced into the stomach. 

f Water, - - 994.4 
Chem. Comp. J Ferment Pepsin, - 3 19 
r 'i Hydrocholanc acid, .2 
1 Salts, - . - 2 10 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 71 

333. What are the ends of the stomach called ? 

A. The cardiac end near the heart the pyloric end. 
The greater end or fundas, the lesser end or neck. 

334. How much gastric juice is secreted in: 24 hours ? 
A. Ten to twenty pints. 

335. Does the stomach secrete gastric juice all the 
time ? 

A. It must have a stimuli, as food, etc., or no secre- 
tion takes place. 

336. What are chief changes resulting from stomach 
digestion ? 

A. 1. Fibres dissolved. 

2 . Proteids changed to peptones and parapeptones . 

3. Milk is curdled, casein dissolved. 

4. Dissolves sapid substances. 

5. Prevents putrefaction. 

6. Gelatin dissolved arid changed to peptone. 

2 37- What is the time of gastric digestion ? 
A. Three to four hours, more or less. 
How may time be modified? 

A. 1. Nature of food. 

2. Quantity of food. 

3. Time since last meal. 

4. Amount of exercise before and after meals. 

5. State of mind. 

6. Bodily health. 

339. Why must proteids be changed to peptones? 

A. Because proteids are not dialyzable, that is, can- 
not pass readily through an animal membrane, and cannot 



72 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



therefore be absorbed. Peptones are highly dialyzable 
and are readily absorbed. 

340. What are uses of muscular coats of stomach ? 

A. 1. Adapt size o\ stomach to quantity of food con- 
tained. 

2. Keep openings closed until digestion is com- 

plete. 

3. To perform peristaltic movements, thus, mix- 

' i.ng food with gastric juice and propelling it 
toward pylorus when digested. 

341. What effect does state of mind have on diges- 

tion ? 

A If mind is tranquil and at rest it aids digestion. 
If busy or under the influence of grief, etc., it retards it. 

342. Define chyme. 

A. The mixture of food, liquids and gastric juice. 

343. Is there any change in pepsin as a result of its 
action ? 

A. It is only partially destroyed, as it acts mostly by 
catalysis. 

344. Have we any other ferment in gastric juice ? 

A. Some physiologists describe a milk-curdling fer- 
ment. 

345. How is it that the stomach does not digest itself? 

A. We cannot say positively why. The weight of 
opinion seems to be that the protection of the coats of 
the stomach during life is due to the constant current of 
alkaline blood circulating" through them. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 75 

346. Do we find gases in the stomach ? 

A. Those derived from air swallowed, from regurgita- 
tion from the duodenum; also those produced by ferment- 
ative and putrefactive changes in the food, in dyspepsia. 

347. Describe vomiting. 

A. The walls of the stomach contract, closing the 
pyloric opening. The diaphragm descends and becomes 
fixed — the oesophageal opening is relaxed. The ab- 
dominal muscles contract, as also the walls of the stomach 
and the contents are regurgitated into the oesophagus, 
which, by a reverse peristalsis ejects the contained mat- 
ter into the mouth and sc out of the body. 

348. How may vomiting be produced ? 

A. 1. By stimulation of the nerves ending in the 
stomach. 
2. By direct action on the centre in the medulla. 

THE INTESTINES. 

349. Describe small intestines. 

A. Musculo membranous tube 1 % in. in diam., 20-21 
ft. long, extending from pyloric orifice of stomach tc 
juncture with coecum at ilio-coecal valve. 

i Duodenum, 1st 12 in. 
4 divisions- Jejunum, f of rest, 
r Ileum, § of rest. 
f Peri ton eal , external . 
, coats ' ! ^ uscu l ar — longitudinal, transverse. 
~* ' J Sub-mucous. 

[Mucous. 

350. Describe large intestines. 

A. Four to six feet long; a continuation of small in- 



74 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

testines, divided into coecum, a wide pouch communica- 
ting with small intestines by Ilio-coecal valve; the colon 
continuous with coecum, ending in rectum, which, after 
iilating at its lower part, contracts and opens externally 
through anus. The appendix vermiformis is attached to 
coecum. The coats of large intestines are same as those 
of small intestines. 

351. What, where and of what use are the villi? 

A. Minute vascular processes covering surface of mu- 
cous membrane in small intestines; they absorb chyle 
and other liquids from the intestines by means of lacteal 
and blood vessels they contain. 

55- 
conniventes ? 

A. Folds of mucous membrane arranged transversely 

to axis of small intestine. Each fold extends from J2 to 
2 3 of circumference of intestine. They do not disappear 
on distension of canal. 

f 1. Increase surface for secretion and absorp- 
tion 
Function*! 2 - Prevent too rapid passage of chyme. 

I 3. Mix contents more perfectly with secre- 
I' tions of intestines. 



633- 



What do we call the secretions of intestine ? 



A. Succus entericus, or intestinal juice, made up of 
the secretions of glands of (1) Brunner, (2) Peyer, (3) 
Lieberkuhn, (4) Mucous. 

354. How does the food move through the intestines ? 
A. By peristalsis. 

355. Define peristalsis. 

A. The moving onward of a contractile wave along 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



the wall of the intestine, caused by the contraction of its 
iscular layers — the tube progressively narrows from 
above downward. 

356. Do peristaltic movements continue at all times ? 

A. The weight of authority is in favor of constant 
movement, awake or asleep. 

357. What nerve influence governs peristalsis? 

A. Auerbachs plexus, found between the muscular 
layers, is the automatic motor centre. Meissners plexus 
aids. 



sis? 



358, Does the circulation of the blood affect peristal - 



A. When the flow of blood is interfered with vigor- 
ous peristaltic movements. are set up. 

THE PANCREAS. 

359. Locate pancreas and give function. 

A. Situated in curve formed by duodenum, trans- 
versely across posterior wall of abdomen. A compound 
racemose gland analogous to salivary glands in structure, 
6 to 8 inches long by 1 ^ inches broad by ) 2 to 1 inch 
thick. It secretes an important digestive fluid, the pan- 
creatic juice. 



o 



60. Describe pancreatic juice. 



A, A colorless, transparent, slightly viscid liquid- 
alkaline in action, sp. gr. 10 10 to 1015. Contains im, 
portant ferments: 1. Trypsin. 2. Amylopsin. 3. Rennet. 
4. Steapsin. 

36 r. Give function of trypsin. 



76 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. Converts proteids into peptones. 

362. What does amylopsin do ? 

A. It has a diastatic action or the power of changing 
starch to sugar. 

363. Give function of pancreatic juice. 

A A most important digestive fluid, due to the fer- 
ments it contains. 

364. Describe leucin and tyrosin. 

A. The} 7 result from the too great action of trypsin on 
the peptone it has formed. They are nitrogenous bodies 
and are erystallizable. 

365. Describe skatol and indol. 

A. Founl smelling products of decomposition formed 
by the micro-organisms of the intestines. 

366. Does trypsin act differently from pepsin on pro- 
teids ? 

A. In the stomach meat fibres swell up before dis- 
solving. In pancreatic digestion they do not swell, but 

gradually become eroded and waste away. 

367. What reaction is necessary to the action of pan- 
creatic juice? 

A. Alkaline, due to the sodium carbonate present, 
which is as necessary here as hydrochloric acid is in 
stomach digestion. 

368. Describe the action of steapsiu. 

A. Emulsifies and saponifies fats. It first forms an 
emulsion of the fats, then causes them to take up a mole- 
cule of water and split up into glycerine audi fatty acids. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



These fatty acids unite with the sodium and potassium 
salts to form soaps. 

369. When does the pancreatic juice enter the small 
intestine ? 

A. At the time when food pours into the duodenum 
from the stomach. 

THE LIVER. 

370. Locate liver. 

A.. Situated in right hypochandriac region and ex- 
tends across epigastrium into left hypochondrium. 

371. Describe liver. 

A. Largest gland in body. Wt. 3 to 4 lbs. Ex- 
tremely vascular. Receives blood for its nutrition through 
hepatic artery — blood to be changed, through portal vein. 
It is made up of oval portions called lobules, ^V °^ an * n * 
in diam., each of which is composed of minute branches 
of the portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic duct and hepatic 
vein. Between the minute branches of these vessels are 
the hepatic cells, g-L of an in. in diam., which are the 
secreting parts of the liver. The lobules are bound to- 
gether by connectives tissues into lobes. 

372. What functions has the liver? 

A. 1. Secretion of bile. 

2. Elaboration of blood and glvcoo;enic functions. 



& a j 



0/ o 



Name its lobes and describe Glissons capsule. 



A. 1 1) right, (2) left. 3; lobus spigelii, (4) lobulus 
caudatus. (5) lobus quadratus. Glissons capsule is a 
sheath of areolar tissue continuous with the fibrous ex- 
ternal coat which passes into the liver, covering the 



7S OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

portal vein, hepatic artery and hepatic duct, and accom- 
panies them in all their branchings. 

374. Where is the bile secreted and from what ? 

A. In the hepatic cells from blood brought there by 
the capillaries of the portal vein. It is gathered up by 
the minute hepatic ducts. 

375. Describe the portal vein as it enters and divides 
in liver. 

A. After entering the liver at the transverse fissure it 
divides into small branches, which divide between the 
lobules, surrounding and limiting them — thus called 
inter-lobular veins. From these inter-lobular veins a 
dense capillary network passes into substance of lobules 
which converges and empties into a single small vein in 
centre of lobule — so called, intra- lobular vein. The intra- 
lobular veins empty into minute veins at the base of each 
lobule — called hence, sub -lobular — and these converging, 
by their union, form the main branches of the hepatic 
veins. 

376. Describe the hepatic duct. 

A. The hepatic duct divides in like manner with por- 
tal vein. The capillaries of the hepatic duct forming a 
network in the lobules, are thus brought into direct con- 
tact with the hepatic cells and so readily receive the bile 
from them as secreted. They pass out at circumference 
of lobule and empty into an interlobular duct surround- 
ing lobule. They unite one with another to form two 
main ducts — -one from the right, the other from the left 
lobe — which pass from the liver at the transverse fiss 
and by their union form the hepatic duct. 

377. Describe common bile duct and give use. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 79 

A. Formed by union of cystic and hepatic ducts, 3 

in. long. The common excretary duct of liver and gall 
bladder. 



A. A pear-shaped membranous sac located in a fossa 
011 the under surface of the right lobe of the liver. Has 
an external serous coat, middle fibro muscular, and in- 
ternal or mucous coat. Four inches long, 1 inch broad. 
capacity 8 to 10 drachms. 



0/ 



9. Give functions of gall bladder. 



A. Reservoir for collection of bile secreted during in- 
tervals of digestion. 

380. Give function of bile. 

A. 1. An excrementitous substance. 

f 1. Emulsifies fats. 
I 2. Moistens mucous memb:\ 
* -,. A - n • i I ' 2 >- Antiseptic. 

2. A digestive fluid-, £ Natl , ra ^ purg ative. 

j 5. Precipitates pepsin, peptones, 
[ parapeptones. 

381. Describe the chemical composition of the hepatic 
cells. 

A. They are made up of proteid matters and glyco- 
gen — a true carbo-hydrate, which is changed to sugar 
by a diastatic ferment here present. 

382. What foods increase or decrease amount of gly- 
cogen ? 

A. Albuminous or fatty diets decrease it. A diet of 
starch, milk, fruit or cane sugar increases it. 

383. From what then is glycogen derived and what 
is its destination ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. From the carbo-hydrate foods. It is called ani- 
mal starch. The ultimate use is unknown, but it is gen- 
erally believed to be changed into sugar by liver diastase 
and the sugar being conveyed away by the hepatic veins, 
is thought to soon undergo combustion. 

384. Describe bile and tell what it contains. 

A. Bile is a viscid, reddish yellow transparent fluid 
and has a neutral reaction and a bitter taste, sp. gr. 1020. 
It contains mucus, glyeo-cholic and tauro-cholic acids, 
which united with soda form the cholates, fats, cholesterin, 
coloring matters, and salts. 

385. Add nitric acid to bile, what results? 
A. A play of colors — this is Gmelins test. 

386. Describe bile pigments. 

A. The yellow coloring matter, Bilirubin; the green, 
or Biliverden; Biliprasin, rare; Hydro-bilirubin, the 
normal coloring matter of the faeces. 

387. Do the substances composing the bile exist as 
such in the blood? 

A. No, they do not, but are the result of true secre- 
tive action of the hepatic cells. 

388. How much bile is secreted daily? 
A. From 20 to 40 ounces. 

389. What is the ultimate end of bile? 

A. Some is discharged with fecal matter, some is ab- 
sorbed and eliminated in urine as urobilin. The bile 
salts are mostly reabsorbed and returned to the blood 
current, the cholesterin passes out with faeces. 

390. What does chyme contain ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 81 



A. i. Albuminous matter broken down, dissolving, 
half dissolved. 

2. Fatty matter broken down, melted, but not dis- 

solved. 

3. Starch slowly changing to sugar. 

4. Sugar dissolving. 

5. Gastric fluid and fluids swallowed. 

6. Indigestible fluids. 

391. What is the function of the succus entericus ? 

A. To change starch to sugar and possibly aid in the 
solution of proteids. 

392. What beoomes of ptyalin, pepsin and the pan- 
creatic ferments ? 

A. The acid pepsin destroys ptyalin. Pepsin and 
the milk-curdling ferment are destroyed by the alkaline, 
pancreatic and intestinal juices and by trypsin. The fer- 
ments of the pancreas are changed and gradually de- 
stroyed by acid fermensative changes in the large in- 
testine. 

393. Give the amount of fecal matter eliminated from 
the body in 24 hours ? 

A. From 6 to 20 ounces, according to the food, exer- 
cise, etc. 

394. What changes take place in the intestinal con- 
tents independent of digestion ? 

A. Those brought about by the action of micrco- 
organisms or bacteria which are examples of organized 
ferments as the digestive ferments are examples of unor- 
agnized ferments. 

395 . How are bacteria classified ? 



S2 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. i. Micrococci or globular bacteria. 

2. Bacilli or rod-shaped bacteria. 

3. Spirilla or sinuous bacteria. 

396. What are the products of bacterial action in the 
intestines ? 

A. 1. The formation of indol skatol cresol and phe- 
nol from peptone. Also gases as ammonia, 
sulphuretted hydrogen, volatile and fatty 
acids, etc. 

2. The formation of lactic and butyric acid from 

carbo-hydrates. 

3. The decomposition of cellulose. 

ABSORPTION. 

397. Define absorption. 

A. 1. The introduction into the blood of fresh focd 
material and air, or whatever comes in con- 
tact with the internal or external surface. 

2. Gradual removal of parts of bod}' when they 
need removal. 

39S. By what method is absorption accomplished? 

A. 1. By osmosis — the passage of fluids through an 
animal membrane independent of vital con- 
ditions — e. g. salts and sugars. 

2. Filtration — the passage of fluids through the 

pores of a membrane under pressure — e. g. 
fats and oils. 

3. Probably a vital or selective action of the epi- 

thelium and tissue which separates fluid to 
be absorbed from the blood and lymph stream. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 83 

399. How are substances classified according to their 
ability when in solutions to pass through membranes ? 

A. 1. As Crystalloids — those which pass freely. 

2. As Colloids — those which pass with difficulty. 

400. Give an idea of the rate of absorption. 

A. Lithium Carbonate taken on an empty stomach in 
a five grain dose ma}' be found in the urine in five to ten 
minutes. It may continue to be found in the urine for 
six to eight days. Strychnia in solution is absorbed most 
quickly from the rectum, — in* solid form from the stom- 
ach, due to the greater solvent powers of the gastric 
juice. 

401. Xame the conditions for absorption. 

A. 1. It must be a diffusible substance in the liquid 
or gaseous state. 

2. The less dense the fluid the more speedy its 

absorption. 

3. The fuller and tenser the blood vessels the less 

rapid the absorption. 

4. The more rapid the circulation of blood the 
quicker absorption. 

The vital . condition and selective action of 
epithelium. 

402. Through what vessels i,s absorption mainly ac- 
complished^ 

A. The Lymphatic System whose vessels are called 
Lymphatics or Absorbents. The}' receive materials of 
the food not taken directly into the blood vessels of the 
alimentary canal and carry them into the blood stream ; 
and also collect fluid which has exuded from the blood 
vessels into the tissues and carry it back into the general 
blood stream a^ain. 



o- 



S4 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

403. Give structure of lymph capillaries. 

A. Similar to blood capillaries. Single layer of en. 
dothelial cells cohering along edges to form tube. Calibre 
larger than that of blood capillaries and varies greatly : 
numerous communications exist with lymph canalicular 
system. 

404. What is the lymph canalicular system ? 

A. Irregular spaces which exist throughout most 
tissues and gather up fluid and worn out solid matter 
from the cells of such tissues. They finally discharge 
contents into lymph vessels and are one of the modes of 
origin of lymph capillaries. 

405. Describe lymph; tell what it contains and where 
it goes. 

A. A clear, transparent, yellowish fluid, slightly 
alkaline; contains corpuscles similar to white blood cor- 
puscles which float in an albuminous fluid; slight amount 
of extractives and salts. It finally is emptied into the 
general blood current at the junction of the jugular and 
subclavian veins on the right and left sides, respectively. 
It is diluted liquor sanguinis. 

406. What does chyle contain ? 

A. 1. Fatty molocules 

2. Proteid matter in fluid state. 

3. Small amount of extractives and salts. 

407. Describe the lacteal. 

A. Dilated pouch like extremity of lymphatic vessel, 
which lies in centre of a villus, and is surrounded by 
blood vessels. The lymphatic vessels, of which the lac- 
teals form the end — anastomose in the sub-mucous tissue 
of the intestine and form lymphatic networks which end 



OUTLINES OF rHYSIOLOGY. 



in the receptaculum chyli, the beginning of the thoracic 
duct, which empties the current of lymph into the sub- 
clavian vein on the left side near its junction with the 
jugular. 

40S. What other force in addition to endosomosis and 
filtration are at work in the absorption of digested food ? 

A. Diffusion, or the mixing of two liquids in a vessel 
when placed one over the other without the presence of a 
septum. 

409. How does absorption by lymphatic and blood 
vessels differ ? 

A. The first seems to show a selective action — a choice 
of materials to be admitted. Blood vessels take in any 
substance that is capable of permeating their walls. 

410. Where may absorption take place ? 

A. 1. In the alimentary canal. 

2. Through the Skin. 

3. Through the Lungs. 



EXCRETION. 

The Urinary Organs. 

411. Define excretion. 

A. Process by which cells of excretory organs sepa- 
rate useless or injurious material from the blood and dis- 
charge it from the body. Excretions exist read}' formed 
in the blood and thus require no making over but merely 
separation. 

412. Name the urinary organs. 



86 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. Right and left kidney. Right and left ureter. 
Bladder. Urethra. 

413. Give shape, size, weight and support of kidneys, 

A. Bean shaped; 4 inches long, 2% in. broad, i 1 /^ in. 
thick, weight, 4^ to 6 oz. Supported by masses of fat 
in which they are imbedded, and the large blood vessels 
which enter and leave them. 

414 Of what is the kidney composed ? 

A. A compound tubular gland. The cortical and 
medullar}' portions are both composed essentially of 
secreting tubes, the tubuli uriniferi, which end in the 
cortical or outer portion in little pouches containing 
blood vessels and called Malpighian bodies. The medul- 
lary or inner ends of these tubes open through papillae 
into the pelvis of the kidney and so discharge urine 
which the}' secrete. Between the tubes and vessels of 
the kidney which make up its substance is a fine matrix 
of areolar tissue. The kidney is covered by a tough 
fibrous capsule which becomes continuous at the hilus 
with the external covering of the ureter. Nerves derived 
from renal plexus. 

415. Describe the cortical portion. 

A. The outer portion of kidney immediately beneath 
the capsule. It is reddish brown in color, soft and gran- 
ular. It is composed of convoluted and straight tubes — 
the tubuli uriuiferi, of blood vessels, nerves and lym- 
phatics. Many little red masses are scattered through- 
out its substance called malphlghian bodies. 

416. Describe the medullary part. 

A. Consists of from 8 to 18 reddish conical masses 
called pyramids of Malpighii. The base of each pyra- 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 87 

mid is surrounded by a cortical arch and directed toward 
the outside. The apex known as a papilla projects into 
one of the calices or cup shaped tnbes of the pelvis of the 
kidney. The pyramids are each composed of a bundle 
of the straight collecting parts of the tubuli uriniferi. 

417. How does the kidney get its blood supply? 

A. By the renal artery, a branch of the abdominal 
aorta, which enters at the hilus. It here divides into 
several branches. Some pass vertically to the surface 
giving off branches to supply the Malpighian bodies. 
Others pass horizontally sending branches up to the cor- 
tex and down to the medulla. The small afferent artery 
entering a Malpighian capsule or pouch- like end of a 
uriniferous tabule, breaks up into a fine looped capillary 
plexus which is gathered up again into a single small 
efferent vessel which passes out of capsule near point 
where afferent artery entered. The capillary plexus de- 
scribed is called the glomerulus or capillary tuft. The 
effe7 r ent vessel as soon as it leaves capsule breaks up into 
another capillary plexus on external wall of capsule. 
The second plexus unites finally in a small vein which 
by union with others like it, finally produces the renal 
vein which passing out at hilus, empties into inf. vena 
cava. 

418. Describe the pelvis and hilus. 

A. The pelvis is a membranous cavity situated at the 
superior part of the ureter, with which it is continuous. 
Into it open 7 to 13 cup-like tubes called calices. The 
hilus is a notch or fissure on internal border of kidney 
about at centre. 

419. Give functions of the kidneys. 
A . The secretion of urine. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



420. Of what use are the large masses of fat surround- 
ing the kidneys ? 

A. To protect and support the kidneys. 

421. Give function of ureters. 

A. They carry urine from the pelvis of each kidney 
to the bladder. 

422. How do the ureters enter the bladder? 

A. Entering the external coat they pass between the 
coats for a short space and penetrating the inner coat, 
open upon the interior. 

423. Locate describe and give functions of urinary 
bladder. 

A. A pear-shaped, musculo, membranous sac situ- 
ated in the pelvis behind the pubes, in front of the rectum 
in the male, the uterus and vagina intervening between it 
and rectum in the female. It is a reservoir for collecting 
the urine preparatory to voiding it and holds about one 
pint. 

THE URINE. 

424. What is the composition of urine? 

A. Water - - - 967 

Urea - - - - 14.23 
Other nirogenous crys- 
talline bodies - 10.635 

Salts [ ^organic j. 8 . 135 
( Organic ) f^ 

1000. 
Gases Nitrogen and CO2. 

425. What amount of urine is secreted each day? 
A. 40 to 52 ounces. 



OUTLINES OK PHYSIOLOGY. 89 

426. Give specific gravity of urine and a quick method 
of determining roughly the amount of solids contained. 

A. 1 01 5-1 025 is about normal: multiply the last two 
figures of the specific gravity by 2.33. 

427. Give reaction of urine. 

A. Acid, due to acid phosphate of soda. 

428. What is the source of urea ? 

A. 1. Splitting up of elements of nitrogenous food. 
2. From nitrogenous metabolism of the tissues. 

429. How much urea is excreted daily? 

A. 529 grains more or less. It is the main solid of 
the urine. 

430. How is quantity of urea influenced ? 

A. By diet — animal foods increase it, vegetable foods 
derease it. 

431. Name the pigments found in urine. 

A. 1. Urochrome, to which its yellow color is due. 

2. Urobilin. 3. Uro-erythrin. 4. Uromelanin. 5. In- 
digo. 

432. What is the origin of mucus in the urine ? 

A. Epithelial debris from the mucous surfaces of the 
urinary passages. 

433. Name the extractives. 

A. 1. Kreatinin. 2. Xanthin. 3. Hypo-Xanthin. 
4. Oxaluric acid. 5. Allantoin. These are nitrogenous 
compounds yielding urea on oxidation. 



9 o OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

434. Describe the variations in the quality of uric 
acid ? 

A. Increased by animal food, decreased by vegetable 
diet. In febrile diseases and plethora is formed in large 
quantity. In gout is deposited in and around joints as 
urate of soda. Uric acid exists in solution in the urine 
as urate of soda. 

435. Describe the saline matter. 

A. 1. Sulphuric acid in the urine is combined with 
sodium or potassium, which salts are taken 
in very small quantity in the food, therefore 
the sulphuric acid they contain must be 
formed in the blood or in the act of secretion 
of the urine. The sulphur of which the acid 
is formed (comes) from decomposing nitro- 
genous tissues, the other elements of which 
are resolved into urea and uric acid. 

2. Phosphoric acid is combined partly with alka- 

lies and very slightly with alkaline earths. 

3. Chlorine is combined with sodium largely, 

slightly with ammonium and perhaps also 
with potassium. 

436. Describe in brief the process of the secretion of 
urine. 

A. 1. The w T atery parts and parts in solution are 
thrown into cavity of malpighian capsule by 
filtration of blood in capillary vessels of 
glomerulus 
2. True secretion by which the epitheliel cells 
lining the convoluted tubes separate from 
the blood the principal urinary solids, as 
urea, etc. 

437. How ma} 7 the secretion of urine be aided and 
retarded ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 91 

fi. By increasing general blood pressure. 
a T Aided ' 2 " By increasing local blood pressure by re- 
] laxation of renal artery without relax- 

L ation elsewhere. 

( 1. By diminishing general blood pres- 
sure. 
J 2. By increase of blood pressure by 
o Retarded J stimulation of cord, causing con- 

striction of renal artery, but no 
increase of general blood pressure . 
J 3. By constriction of renal artery by 
nerve influence. 

438. Give functions of urethra. 

A. To conduct urine from urinary bladder to outer 
world. 

439. What is micturition ? 

A. The discharge of the urine from the bladder by 
the contraction by its muscular coats. The respiratory and 
abdominal muscles aid. The Diaphragm is fixed and the 
act is completed by the accelerator urinae muscle. 

440. Describe the nerve mechanism of Urination. 

A. The sphincter versiaz is kept in a state of tonic 
contraction by its motor centre in the cord. Urine col- 
lecting in bladder stimulates sensory nerve endings in the 
walls and impulses are thus sent to the brain and cord. 
These centres send back motor impulses which contract 
the muscular walls of the bladder and relax its sphincter 
and the water passes out through the urethra. 

441 What changes occur in the urine as the result of 
diseased conditions of the body ? 

A. Albumen escapes in the urine in Bright' s disease, 
and in a condition called albuminuria, frequent in scarlet 
fever. Sugar is present in diabetes mellitus. Blood is. 
present in acute inflammation of the kidneys and genito- 



9 2 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY, 



urinary tract. Chyle sometimes escapes in this way and 
bile is frequently found, indicating a defective action of 
the liver, or a change in the portal circulation. 

THE SKIX. 



442. Give offices of the skin. 

A. 1. To cover and protect deeper tissues. 

2. Sensitive organ in exercise of touch. 

3. Secretory and excretory organ. 

4. Absorbing organ. 

5. Regulates temperature of bod}'. 

Name the layers of skin. 
Derma or true skin. 



443- 
A. 



2. Epidermis or cuticles , 



4. 



I 



What are found in derma ? 



Stratum corneum or 
horny layer. 

Stratum lucidum or lu- 
cid layer. 

Stratum granulosum or 
granular layer. 

Stratum malpighii or 
many strata. 



444- 

A. Papillae, ducts of sweat glands, sebaceous glands, 
hair follicles, blood vessels, nerves and lymphatics, 
Derma is a dense, tough, highly elastic structure, com- 
posed of areolar tissue and man}- plain muscular fibres, 
resting upon a layer of adipose and cellular tissue. 

445. What are found in epidermis. 

A. Ducts of sweat and sebaceous glands, hairs and 
nails. It is composed of many strata of cells, and resem- 
bles epithelium of mucous membrane of mouth. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 93 

446. Describe glands of skin. 

A. Sudoriferous or sweat glands — each a small 
lobular mass formed of a coil of tubular gland duct, sur- 
rounded by blood vessels and imbedded in subcutaneous 
adipose tissue. Mouth of duct opens on surface of skin, 
where its secretion of sweat is poured out. 

2. Sebaceous glands — minutely lobulated glands com- 
posed of an aggregation of small tubes filled with sub- 
stance like soft ointment. They are abundantly covered 
with capillaries and their duct opens into follicle of hairs, 
or on surface of skin near hairs. Most abundant on hairy 
parts of body. 

447 How are the hairs and nails formed? 

A. By a modification of the epidermis. 

448. Why is it that men differ in color ? 

A. By the presence or absence of a characteristic pig- 
ment coloring matter in the la}-er of the epidermis called 
the rete mucosum. 

449. What are the papillae and give their use. 

A. They are conical elevations of the derma or true 
skin and contain a nerve ending w 7 hich in this way in- 
creases the area of peripheral sensibility. 

450. How much water is thrown out by the glands of 
the skin daily. 

A. From i 1 /? to 2 pints. 

451. What impurities are thus excreted? 
A. CO2, Urea and inorganic salts. 

452. When the skin ceases to excrete, what organs 
do the work ? 



94 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. The kidneys. 

THE METABOLISM OF THE TISSUE. 

453. Where are metabolic processes best studied in the 
human bod}' ? 

A. In the muscles and glands, which occupy an inter- 
mediate position between the digestion and absorption of 
the food on the one hand and the excretion of waste pro- 
ducts on the other. 

MUSCULAR METABOLISM. 

454. What part of the total body weight is muscle? 
A. About one-half. 

455. What is myosin ? 

A. The principal substance which can be extracted 
from dead muscle. It is a proteid body of the globulin 
class. It bears the same relation to living muscle that 
fibrin does to living blood. Myosinigen is the anteced- 
ent of ni3 7 osin in living muscle, as fibrinogen is the fibrin 
forming element in living blood. 

456. What is muscle plasma? 

A. A viscid fluid, alkaline in reaction, which can be 
squeezed from muscle subject to O. C. as soon as an ani- 
mal is killed. It undergoes coagulation at ordinary temper- 
atures as does blood plasma and separates into 1, muscle 
clot or myosin, and 2, muscle serum. 

457. To what is muscle clot due? 

A. To the action of myosin ferment on mvosinigen. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 95 

458. What is muscle serum, and what do muscle ex- 
tracts contain ? 

A. A colorless fluid, acid in reaction; containing three 
proteid bodies. 1. Myoglobulin. 2. Myo- Albumin. 3. 
Myo-albumose, a pigment Myo-Haematin, myosin fer- 
ment, small amounts of pepsin and fibrin ferment, an 
amylolytic ferment, sarco-lactic, acetic and formic acids 
glycogen, glucose and inosite representing the carbohy- 
drates. Nitrogenous crystalline bodies as kreatin, krea- 
tinin, xanthin, hypo-xanthin, taurin, urea, uric acid and 
inosinic acid. Salts as potassium phosphate. 

459. How may muscles exist ? 

A. 1. During rest. 2. During activity. 3. In rigor. 

460. What is their physical condition during rest ? 

A. They have a slight but perfect elasticity ; oxygen 
is abstracted from blood and CO2 given out ; alkaline in 
reaction. 

461. By what properties of muscular tissues are its 
functions exercised ? 

A. r. By its contractility. 2. By its sensibility. 

462. How may contractility be called forth ? 

A. By stimuli applied to muscle or nerve supplying 
muscle, either (1 ) mechanical, (2) thermal, (3) chemical, 
or (4) electrical stimuli. 

463. Explain the tracing or muscle curve obtained by 
a single muscle contraction the effect of a single induction 
shock ? 

A. 1. The latent period y-1— of a second. 2. Stage 
of contraction proper, T 3E_ sec. 3. Stage of elongation, 
yjj-g- sec. 4. Stage of elastic after- vibration or contraction 
remainder. 



96 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

464. What is Tetanus? 

A, A summation of contractions resulting from a 
series of shocks maintaining the contraction at its maxi- 
mum. 

465. What are the accompaniments of muscular con- 
traction ? 

A. r. Heat. 2. Sound. 

3. Changes in shape. 4. Chemical changes. 
5. Electrical changes. 

466. What is the reaction of muscle after activity — to 
what due ? 

A. Acid. Due to development of sarcolactic acid. 

467. What is the condition of the muscle in rigor 
mortis ? 

A. 1. Becomes acid iu reaction. 2. Gives off CO2 in 
excess. 3. Diminishes in volume. 4. Becomes short- 
ened and opaqne. 

468. What is the cause of rigor mortis ? 

A. Coagulation of muscle plasma. Three stages 1. 
Gradual coagulation. 2. Contraction of muscle clot 
squeezing out of muscle serum. 3. Putrefaction. 

469. In what order are the muscles affected by rigor 
mortis ? 

A. Neck and lower jaw first; next upper extremities 
from above downward; lastly lower limbs. Ceases in 
same order that it begins. Never commences earlier than 
10 minutes nor later than 7 hours after death. 

470. Of what use are the voluntary muscles of the 
body ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 97 

A. Act as source of power for removing levers — the 
latter, the bones to which muscles are attached. Thus 
we stand, walk, run, etc. 

47 1 . Name different orders of levers that are in use in 
the bod) T . 

A. All three orders are found, and in some cases all 
three are in use at the same joint. 1. P. F. W. e. g. 
raising body from stooping posture by hamstring muscles. 

2. P. W. F. e. g. opening mouth by depressing jaw. 

3. F. P. W. e. g. in biting. In ankle we have all three 
kinds. 

472. How are striped and unstriped muscles moved ? 

A, The striped by an effort of the will. The un- 
striped by centres over which the will power has no in- 
fluence. 

473. What do you understand by the elasticity of 
muscle ? * 

A. The length to which a muscle may be stretched 
and still return to its normal length. 

474. Why are the muscles of the body always on the 
stretch ? 

A, They act as ligaments to bind together the entire 
body. They nearly always have opposing muscles which 
in action produce opposing movements. These muscles 
in a passive state have an elasticity which opposes the ac- 
tive contraction of the opposing muscles. This elasticity 
of the passive muscle acts as a weak spring and so kee} s 
up the tonicity of the limb and inhibits sudden jerks of 
the body which would take place if muscles contracted 
quickly and took up the slack in opposite muscles first. 

475. What do you understand by fatigue of muscles ? 



9 S OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. It means lessened irritability or power of respond- 
ing to stimuli. 

476. Of what use are the involuntary muscles? 

A. Form walls of such hollow parts as need to dim- 
inish their calibre under certain circumstances, e. g. y 
blood vessels, intestines, etc. 

477. Define 1. Electrotonus. 2. Anelectrotonus and 
3 . Katelectrotonus ? 

A, 1. The electrical condition of the nerves. 

2. The condition of a nerve near the anode or 

positive pole during the passage of a con- 
stant electrical current — the irritability is de- 
creased. 

3. The condition of the nerve near the cathode or 

negative pole — irritabiliiy is increased. 



GLANDULAR METABOLISM. 

478. Define secretion. 

A. Process by which cells of secreting organs separate 
materials from the blood and elaborate them to serve 
some useful office in the bod)'. 

479. What is necessary for a secreting gland ? 

A, 1. A priman r or basement membrane. Certain 
cells. 2. Blood vessels. 

480. Name the principal secretiug organs ? 

A. 1. The serous and synovial membranes. 2. The 
mucous membranes with their special glands e. g. The 
buccal, gastric and intestinal glands. 3. The salivary 
glands and pancreas. 4. The mammary glands. 5. The 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 99 



liver. 6. The lachrymal gland. 7. The kidneys and 
skin. 8. The testes. 

481. Locate serous and synovial membranes? 

A. 2. They line closed or visceral cavities as the 
arachnoid, pericardium, pleural, peritoneum, and tunicse 
vaginales. 2. The synovial membranes lining joints, 
sheaths of tendons and liagments, and bursae mucosae. 

482. What is the function of serous and synovial 
membranes ? 

A. Furnish smooth, moist surface to facilitate move- 
ments of invested organ and prevent the injurious effects 
of friction. 

483. Locate aud describe mucous membranes ? 

A. Line all open cavities and form a medium whereby 
matters are eliminated from, or foreign substances are 
taken into the body. They are soft and very vascular 
and are attached variously to muscle, to perichondrium, 
to periosteum and in the intestinal canal to the firm sub- 
mucous membrane. They line the Gastro-pulmonary 
and Genito urinar} 7 tracts. 

484. Name kinds of secreting glands and give ex- 
amples of each. 

A. 1. Simple tubular. 2. Compound tubular. 

Sudoriferous glands. Kidneys. 

3. Racemose. 



Meibomian follicles. 
485. Describe the process of secretion. 

f 1. Filtration — passage of fluids through par 
A Vh ' s1 ' ous m embrane under influence of pressure. 

si. I. 1 n} sica -, 2 Di a iy S i s — p assa g e independent of p.es- 
C I sure, or in opposition to it. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



2. Chemical — the formation of new materials by 
the secreting cells from the plasma exuding 
from the blood vessels. 

486. What circumstances influence secretion. 

A. 1. Variations in quantities of blood supplied. 

2. Variations in quantit}^ of peculiar materials for 

any secretions which the blood may contain. 

3. Variations in condition of nerves of glands. 

487. Describe briefly changes in mammary glands due 
to gestation. 

A. They enlarge, veins become prominent, lobules 
can be easily felt, and the dark pigmentation around the 
nipple or areola widens and deepens in color. 

488. Give number of lobes and use of lactiferous 
ducts. 

A. 15 to 20 lobes, each divided into several lobules 
made up of acini. They carry the milk to the nipple, on 
which they open on many small orifices. They form 
little dilated sacs for the collection of the milk, previous 
to entering the nipple. 

489. Give source of fat globules of milk ? 

A. By fatty degeneration of the epithelial cells lining 
the acini and ducts. 

490. What is the odor and appearance of milk ? 

A. It is an opaque, bluish white fluid with a sweet 
taste, and a peculiar odor due to volatile aromatic 
substances formed by the cutaneous secretion of the 
glands. 

491. Give the specific gravity and reaction of human 
milk. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. 1028 to 1034. Cows' milk may be alkaline, acid 
or neutral. 

492. Compare human milk and cow's milk. 

A. Human milk contains less albumen and more su- 
gar and fat than cow's milk. 

493. Describe Colostrum and give its use. 

A . A substance secreted at the beginning of lactation. 
It contains very little casein but all the other components 
of milk in large amounts, especially fat. This fat acts as 
a purgative and cleans the digestive tract of the infant of 
meconium and effete matters general!}'. 

494. Name salts in milk and give use. 

A. Potash and soda salts and large amount of calcium 
phosphate. The last is necessary to form the bones of 
the infant. The former salts give the milk its alkaline 
reaction and render it antiseptic. 

METABOLISM IN THE LIVER. 

495. What results from metabolic changes in the liver 
cells during life ? 

A. 1. Formation of bile. 2. Production of Glvco^en. 
3. Formation of urea. 

496. What conclusions have been reached with regard 
to the formation of bile? 

A. 1. It must be formed by the hepatic cells since it 
does not accumulate in the blood when the 
liver is extirpated from an animal. 
2. The bile pigments are derived from the haemo- 
globin of the blood since thev are increassd 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



by the injection into the blood current of 
substances which set free haemoglobin. 

3. That the bile acids are found in the liver cells, 

but taurin and glycin are brought to them in 
the blood and the cells manufacture the 
cholic acid. 

4. There is no support to the idea that bile is 

formed from the blood of the hepatic artery, 
and not from that of the portal vein. 

497. What is the relation of glycogen to the cell met- 
abolism ? 

A. We cannot say whether glycogen is formed by the 
dehydration of sugar, reaching the cells in the portal 
blood, or whether the cells by their metabolism form gly- 
cogen or sugar, which the}' discharge into the hepatic 
blood during fasting, but which they store up in them- 
selves, as glycogen, as long as there is enough sugar in 
the blood without it, or as long as the tissues do not need 
nearly all of the carbo-hydrate secreted by the hepatic 
cells. 

498. Explain the formation of urea. 

A. Evidence appears to show that urea is produced 
by the liver cells by action upon leucin and possibly 
tyrosin. Possibly also proteid food material is split up 
by the hepatic cell into a glycogen moiety and an urea 
moiety. 2- Kreatin, the product of muscular metabol- 
ism, is an important source of urea. Some urea may be 
formed in the spleen, the lymphatic and other glands. 

499. How are Uric and Hippuric acids formed? 

A. 1. L"ric acid probably arises in much the same 
way as urea. 2. Hippuric ncid arises from the union of 
benzoic acid with glyein, which probably takes place in 
the kidneys. In part it arises from constituents of veg- 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 103 

etable diet and in part from the natural disintegration of 
the tissues. 



METABOLISM IN THE VASCULAR GLANDS. 

500. Name the vascular glands. 

A. 1. The Spleen. 2. Thymus. 3. Tonsils. 4. 
Solitary and Agminated glands of Peyer. 5. Supra 
Renal Capsules or Adrenals. 6. Thyroid. 7. Pineal. 
8. Pituitary. 9. Carotid. 10. Coccygeal. 

501. Locate and describe the spleen. 

A. It is the largest of the vascular glands and lies to 
the left of the stomach, between it and the diaphragm. 
It is of a deep red color, variable in shape, generally oval 
somewhat concavo-convex. Vessels enter and leave it at 
the inner side or hilus. 

502. Give function of the spleen. 

A. 1 . It elaborates albuminous food and stores it up. 

2. Forms blood corpuscles. 

3. Worn out red blood coruscles here undergo 

disintegration. 

4. Scene of special nitrogenous metabolism. 

5. Vascular reservoir to portal system of vessels 

of stomach. 

503. Give function of thyroid and thymus glands. 

A. Supposed to aid in the elaboration of the bloo d 

504. Locate the thyroid gland ? 

A. Situated in the neck. Consists of two lobes, one 
on each side of the trachea, extending upward to the 
thyroid cartilage, covering its inferior cornu and part of 



104 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

its body; these lobes are connected by a middle lobe or 
isthmus. It is covered by the muscles of the neck, 
highly vascular and varies in size. 

505. Where are the Supra-renal Capsules or Adre- 
nals ? 

A. Two flattened more or less triangular, cocked-hat 
shaped bodies, resting by their lower border on the upper 
border of the kidneys. 

ANIMAL, HEAT. 

506. What is animal heat? 

A. The average temperature at which animal bodies 
a^e maintained. 

507. Give normal temperature of human body; upon 
what does it depend ? 

A. 98. 6° to 99. 5 ; depends upon age, sex, period of 
day, exercise, climate and season, food and drink, disease. 

508. Is the temperature of all warm-blooded animals 
the same as that of man ? 

A. It is subject to great variations — in birds as high 
as 107 F., in dogs 103 F. 

509. What determines the temperature of cold-blooded 
animals ? 

A. It depends entirely upon the temperature of the 
surrounding medium. 

510. Give an idea of the difference in temperature we 
may see in disease. 

A. It may rise to 107 F. or fall as low as 77 ° F. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 105 

511. Is there a difference in temperature in different 
parts of the body ? 

A. The hands and feet are coolest, the liver oft en ha s 
a temperature of 105 F. 

512. What is the source of animal heat ? 

A. Arises from combustion, due to the fact that the 
oxygen of the air is ultimately combined with carbon and 
hydrogen from food and drink, and discharged from body 
as CO2 and H 2 O. 

513. What is a calorie? 

A. It is the heat unit and means the amount of heat 
required to raise 1 gramme of water from 15 C. to 16 
C, so called a gramme-calorie. Thus 1 gramme of the 
following substances equals the number of gramme- 
calories seen in the following table. 

Hydrogen — 3450. Fat — 9000. Urea _ . 2200 

Carbon — 8100. Carbohydrate = 4000. 

Proteid — 5000 to 5500. 

1 gramme of proteid gives rise to y 2 gramme of Urea. 

514. Name the heat producing tissues in order of 
importance. 

A. 1. The Muscles. 2. The Secreting Glands. 3. 
Brain. 

515. How is the temperature of body regulated? 

A. By mechanisms which permit of (1) variation in 
amount of heat got rid of; (2) variation in amount of 
heat produced. 

516. By what is heat lost? 

A. 1. By the skin. 2. By the lungs. 3. Slightly 
by kidneys and bowels, and by warming cold foods. 



106 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

517. Give loss of heat by skin; how do you account 
for it ? 

A. Seventy to eighty per cent, of the whole amount. 

1. Offers large surface for radiation, conduction 

and. evaporation. 

2. Contains large amount of blood. 

3. Quantity of blood in it is increased when loss 
• of heat is necessary and vice versa. 

51S. How regulate amount of heat lost in different 
climates ? 

A. By varying weight of external coverings, as 
clothing. 

519. How regulate amount of heat produced ? 

A. 1. By varying quantity and quality of food taken . 

2. By exercise. 

3. By influence of nervous system. 

520. In this connection what function does perspira- 
tion fulfill ? 

A. Its evaporation helps to lose heat when heat is 
formed in or added to the body too rapidly. 

521. Can we stand heat better in a dry or a moist at- 
mosphere ? 

A. Very much better in the dry air, because then 
perspiration is evaporated so rapidly that heat is readily 
lost from the body. 

^22. In an absolutely dry air how high a temperature 
can a human being stand ? 

A. Chabert, the so-called fire king is said to have 
stood from 400 to 6oo° F. according to Morrant Baker. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 107 

Workmen in iron, steel and glass furnaces frequently 
have to stand temperatures of 350 °F. for short intervals. 

523. Which animal tissue is the best protection 
against cold ? 

A. Fat, as it forms a layer under the skin of warm 
blooded animals, and as it is a bad conductor of heat it 
makes the loss of internal heat almost impossible. 

524. Give the effect of heat, sleep and hemorrhage on 
the temperature. 

A. They all tend to lower the temperature. 

525. Define hibernation. 

A. A state in which the vital processes in an animal 
almost entirely cease. Respitory, digestive and peri- 
saltic movements cease and the cardio pneumatic move- 
ments are slight but sufficient to sustain the exchange of 
oxygen in the lungs. 

NUTRITION AND DIET. 

526. What is necessary in order to maintain life ? 
A. Food in proper quality and quantity. 

527. What are the uses of food? 

A. 1. To replace waste of tissues. 
2. To maintain animal heat. 

528. Name the eliminating organs and the elements 
given off by each. 

A. 1. Lungs, C. H. O. N. 

2. Kidneys, H. O. N. 

3. Bowels, H. O. C. 



ioS OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



4. Skin, H. O. C. In addition all give off large 
amounts of water H2 O. 

529. Define a food. 

A. Any substance which when taken into the body 
is absorbed, assimilated when carried to the tissues and 
which supplies a want. 

530. What effect has starvation on the lower animals ? 

A. 1. Loss of weight — death occurs when the body 
has lost two-fifths of its original weight. 

2. Variation in temperatuae — a daily fluctuation 

of 5 or 6° F. instead of i° or 2 F. as in 
health. Just before death, falls rapidly and 
at time of death the loss amounts to 30 F. 

3. The excreta diminish. 

531. What are the symptoms of starvation in man? 

A. Hunger, pain in region of stomach, thirst, sleep- 
lessness, general weakness and emaciation. Foetid ex- 
halations indicating tendency to decomposition in badly 
nourished tissues; diarrhoea, convulsions or delirium and 
finally death. Man lives 6 to ten days when totally de- 
prived of food. 

532. What is nitrogenous equilibrium ? 

A. When the nitrogen of the egesta equals the nitro- 
gen of the ingesta. 

533- What relation have the proteids of food to pro- 
teid metabolism and outgoing urea? 

A. 1. Morphotic or tissue proteids go to maintain the 
ordinary metabolism of the tissues and are 
thus actually built up into their molecule. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 109 

2. Circulating or floating proteids cause a more 
rapid formation of urea and rapid proteid 
metabolism, but never form a part of the 
actual protoplasmic molecule. 

534. What are the effects of an exclusive diet of Fats, 
or Carbo Hydrates, or Gelatin? 

A. Dogs so fed die on either diet on the 31st to 35th 
day and their bodies present all the appearances of death 
from starvation. 

535. What are some effects of too much food? 

A. Causes indigestion or diarrhoea. If excess is ab- 
sorbed we get in case of nitrogenous foods, general ple- 
thora or gout. In case of carbo hydrates vve get obesity. 

536. What are the requisites of a normal diet ? 

A. Variety of well cooked articles containing about 
same amount of carbon and nitrogen as we get rid of by 
excreta. 

537. Divide into groups and describe in the most sim- 
ple manner the foods needed by man. 

A. Five groups. 

1. Starches — add heat and fat to the body. 

2. Fats — maintain and retain bodily heat. 

3. Albuminous — add force to the system. 

4 Water — dissolves food and effete products, 
bathes all tissues. 

5. Salts — needful to maintain health. 

538. Give the amount of food stuffs needed by man 
in 24 hours. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. At Labor. 




At Rest. 


Nitrogenous or flesh. 6 to 7 oz. 
Fats, 3.5 to 4.5 oz. 
Carbo hydrates, 16 to 18 oz. 




2.5 OZ. 
I oz. 

12 OZ. 


Salts, 1.2 to 1. 7 oz. 




•5 ° z - 


539. Give Moleschott's diet scale. 






A. Dry Food. N. 

Proteid, 120 grms.(4.2 oz)=iS.S grins, 


c. 

64.2 grms. 


Fat, 90 " (3.17 oz)= . 
Carbohydrate 320 '• (n.64 oz)= 




70.2 " 
146. S " 


Salts. 30 " (1 oz) N. iS.S 
Water, 2800 


C 


. 281.2 



540. How much milk should an infant take daily 
during its first month ? 

A. 2% lbs. daily, which allows for a gain of weight 
of 2 to 5 oz. in the time. 

541. What attention should be made for climate? 

A. In warm climate slightly increase the carbohy- 
drates. 

542. How would you arrange a fattening diet ? 
A. Take an excess of carbohydrates. 

543. How reduce obesity? 

A. Fats and carbohyrates should be diminished. 
Proteids proportionately increased. 

544. How increase muscle ? 

A. Large amounts of proteids with passive exercise, 
as massage. 

545. For training and hard labor? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. Increase whole diet. 

546. What is the proper diet for a brain worker. 
A. It should consist of easily digestible materials. 

547. What other function does food supply besides 
making up for substances eliminated from the body ? 

A. Potential energy to balance the energy set free in 
the living body, as heat and movement. 

548. What are the objects of an expenditure of force ? 

A. 1. Manifestations of Force in the form of Heat, or 
Motion. 

2. Manifestation of nerve foree. 

3. Energy expended in all physiological processes. 

549. What amount of energy is daily manifested by 
the adult human body ? 

Metre Kilo- Gramme 

grammes. Calories. 

A. Work of heart per diem, - 88.000 
Work of respirator}' muscles, 14,000 
Eight hours active work, - 213,844 



315,344 or 743,000 
Amount of heat produced 

in 24 hours, - - 1,582,700 " 3,742,000 



1,898,034 " 4,467,000 

Most observers believe the total energy exhibited in 
24 hours is under 1,000,000 kilog. metres. 

550. Show by Moleschott's table how this energy is 
supplied ? 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



Gramme Calorics. 

A. i20grs. Proteid, - - 544,500 

90 grs. Fat, - 810,000 

330 grs. Carbohydrate, - - - 1,320,000 



A potential energy of 2,694,450 

1,144,950 Kilog. metres of kinetee energy. 

THE VOICE AND SPEECH. 
551. Describe the production of the human voice. 

A. A sound produced by the vibration of the true 
vocal cords which bound the glottis. Caused by currents 
of expired air impelled over their edges. 



do-'- 



Describe the laryngoscope. 



A. Consists of a large concave mirror with hole in 
centre, and of a smaller mirror on a long handle. By 
means of a large mirror, light — placed behind and above 
head — is reflected into open mouth of patient. The 
small mirror is placed with its back against uvula and 
the light directed on it, when — if at the right angle — an 
inverted image of interior of larynx, vocal cords, etc., 
will be seen reflected from surface of small mirror. 

553. Describe the varieties of vocal sound. 

A. 1. Monotonous notes have same pitch as ordinary 
.speech. 

2. Successive transitions irom high to low notes 

and the reverse without intervals, as heard 
in the owing of men. 

3. The musical — each sound has a fixed number 

of vibrations and the number of vibrations 
in the successive sounds have the proportions 
characteristic of the musical scale. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 113 

554. What makes the different pitch of male and 
female voices ? 

A. The vocal cords in the male are longer than in 
the female. 

555. What is the entire scale of the human voice? 
A. About four octaves. 

556. How much higher is the female than the male 
voice? 

A. About one octave. 

557. What produces the different timbre or tone of 
voice ? 

A. The different nature and shape of the resounding 
walls. 

558. What two series of notes have we in singing ? 
A. Chest notes and falsetto notes. 

559. Upon what does the pitch of a note depend? 

A. Upon the rapidity of the vibrations of the vocal 
cords. 

500. How is the intensity or loudness of a note altered? 
A. By modifying the tension of the vocal cords. 

561. What constitutes language ? 

A. A combination of the sounds which can be pro- 
duced in the vocal tubes between the glottis and the ex- 
ternal apertures of the air passages, by the cerebrum, 
into different groups to designate objects, properties, ac- 
tions, etc. 

562. How are articulate sounds divided ? 



ii4 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. i. Into vowels — generated by the larynx. 

2. Consonants — produced by interruption of the 
current of air in some part of the air pas- 
sages above the larvnx. 



-^ 



Part II. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

i . Of what parts does the nervous system consist ? 

A . i . Large masses of nervous matter within the boii}^ 
cranium and spinal cord, constituting the 
brain and spinal cord. 

2. Smaller masses of nervous matter for the most 

part in the abdominal and thoracic cavities, 
but also in the neck and head, known as 
sympathetic ganglia. 

3. Of cords of nerve fibre connecting the central 

nervous system with the periphery and the 
so-called sympathetic ganglia. 

4. Of peripheral organs in connection with the 

beginnings or endings of the nerves at the 
periphery of the body. 

2. What is the office of nerve fibres ? 
A. To conduct impressions. 

3. How may they be stimulated to act ? 

A, Bv anything which increases their irritability 
with sufficient suddenness. They can not themselves 
originate the condition necessary to manifest their own 
energy. 



n6 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

4. Upon what does the effect of stimulus upon a nerve 
depend ? 

A. Upon the nature of its end organ. 

5. What are the results of irritating a cerebro spinal 
nerve fibre in the living bod}' ? 

A. It is conducted either to the brain, which is its 
central termination, when there is pain or to a muscle 
which is the peripheral termination when there is move- 
ment. 

6. In accordance with this fact how are they com- 
monly classified ? 

A. As sensory or motor, since the result of their stim- 
ulation occurs at one or the other of their extremities — 
either central ox peripheral — never at both. 

7. According to function how are all nerves named ? 

A. 1. Centripetal or afferent. 

2. Centrifugal or efferent. 

3. lntercentral. 

8. Give office of centripetal and centrifugal fibres. 

A. 1. -Centripetal — sensory or afferent fibres carry 
impulses from the periphery to the nerve 
centres. 
2. Centrifugal — motor or efferent fibres carry im- 
pulses from the centre to the periphery. 

9. What may conduction in centripetal nerves cause? 

A. 1. Pain or some kind of sensation. 

2. Special sensation. 

3. Reflex action. 

4. Inhibition or restraint of movement. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 117 

10. Conduction in centrifugal nerves. 

A. 1. Contraction of muscles (motor nerves). 

2. May influence nutrition (trophic nerves J. 

3. May influence secretion (secretory nerves). 

4. Inhibit, augment, or stop any other efferent 

action. 

11. Give function of intercentral nerves. 

A. They unite the cells of nerve centres one with 
another. 

12. Can impulses be transferred from one nerve trunk 
to another ? 

A. Never, if both nerves are uninjured. 

13. What does Irritability mean in this connection ? 

A. The inherent power which all nerves possess of 
being called into action by a stimulus and thus transmit- 
ting impulses. 

14. What things are essential to irritability ? 

A. 1. Good blood supply — to bring nutrient matter 
and carry off waste. 

2. Perfect connection with centre. 

3. A normal temperature. 

15. What is the velocity of nerve force ? 

A. Motor nerves, in ft. per second. Sensory nerves, 
140 feet per second. 

16. What does the Cerebro Spinal System include? 

A. 1. The cerebrum, cerebellum, crura cerebri, pons 
varolii and Basic ganglia, all of which together form the 
brain. 2. The Medulla Oblongata or bulb. 3. Spinal 



nS OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

Cord. 4. The nerves passing from them, called Spinal 
(31 pairs) when from the cord and Cranial when from 
base of the brain (12 pairs). These nerves are chiefly 
distributed to the skin, organs of the senses and volun- 
tary muscles. 

17. What are all these parts of the nervous system ? 

A. Nerve centres made up of nerve cells and their 
branchings or as now conceived nerve centres are made 
up of neurous with their terminals. 

18. Give functions of nerve centres. 

A. 1. Reflex action. 

2. Automatism. 

3. Inhibition and Augmentation. 

A. The power of sending out impulses to the periph- 
ery along efferent nerves in response to impulses reaching 
them through afferent nerves. Briefly, the conversion 
of an afferent into an efferent impulse. J 

19. What is Reflex action and what things are neces- 
sary for it ? 

A. 1. One or more perfect sensory fibres — to convey 
an impression. 

2. A nervous centre to receive and reflect it. 

3. One or more centrifugal fibres to conduct the 

impression. 

4. The muscular or other tissue by which the effect 

is shown. 

20. Are reflex actions voluntary or involuntary ? 

A. Involuntary, though they may be controlled, mod- 
ified or stopped by an action of the will. 

21. Describe the difference in Reflex actions per- 
formed in health or disease. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 119 

A. Those in health have a distinct purpose adapted 
to secure some end desirable for the well being of the 
body. Those in disease are often irregular and purpose- 
less. 

22. Name the laws governing the relation between 
the stimulus and the resulting reflex action. 

A. 1. Law of unilateral reflection. 

2. Law of symmetrical reflection. 

3. Law of intensity. 

4. Law of radiation. 

23. In the simplest reflex action what are concerned? 

A. A single sensory and a single motor neuron. In 
most reflex actions, however, man)' neurous are engaged 

— the impulse being carried by collaterals up and down 
to different levels of the cord, and so a number of groups 
of cells are affected. 

24. Upon what does the reflex effect of a stimulus to 
a sensory surface depend ? 

A. Upon the strength of the stimulus and the condi- 
tion of the nerve centre. 

25. What is the effect produced a result of? 

A. The discharge of energy from the centre, which 
is at times in a more explosive condition than at others. 

26. Give an example of Primary and Secondary re- 
flex action. 

A. Primary — contraction of the pupil. Secondary 

— walking. 

27. What is Automatism ? 

A. The property which nerve centres have of origi- 
nating nerve impulses. 



120 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

2S. How does the centre perform its automatic func- 
tion ? 

A. By the nature of its own metabolism — anabolism 
or building up of the explosive substance, being followed 
by Katabolism or its discharge. 

29. What of Augmentation and Inhibition ? 

A. Nerve cells have the power of increasing nerve 
impulses — the result is called Augmentation. Action in 
a nerve centre is capable of being restrained or diminished 
by afferent impulses — called Inhibition. 

SPINAL CORD. 

30. Locate and describe spinal cord. 

A. Contained in vertebral canal. A cylindrical col- 
umn of nerve substance connected above with the brain 
by the medulla oblongata, and terminates below about 
the lower border of the first lumber vertebra in a slender 
filament of gray substance which lies in the midst of 
the roots of many nerves forming the cauda equina. It is 
16 to 17 in. long, wt. 1 1 2 oz.; in proportion to encephalon 
of 1 to 33. 

31. Name and describe coverings of spinal cord. 

A. 1. Dura Mater — external fibrous membrane, for 
protection. 

2. "Arachnoid — middle delicate membrane lined 

on free surface by an endothelial membrane. 

3. Pia Mater — internal, double layered mem- 

brane, very muscular. 

32. Describe arrangement of white and gray matter 
in spinal cord. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



A. White — external, constitutes chief portion. Gray 
— internal or axial portion, appears in cross section like 
two crescentric masses connected by narrow isthmus. 

33. Give origin and distribution of nerve roots. 

A. Anterior roots arise from the anterier columns of 
cord, and more deeply from multipolar cells in ant. corn n a 
of gray matter. Made up of centrifugal fibres and conveys 
motor impulses to body. Posterior roots arise from pos- 
terior columns of cord and are composed of centripetal 
fibres conveying sensory impressions to cord from all 
parts of the body. 

34. Describe columns of cord. 

A. Each half of spinal cord is divided by two longi- 
tudinal furrows on its sides, into three portions or 
columns. The anterior column extend from the ant. 
commissure to the first longitudinal furrow. The lateral 
column lies on each side between two longitudinal fur- 
row. The posterior column lies between second longi- 
tudinal iurrow T and posterior commissure. 

35. Of what is the white matter composed? 

A. Of medullated nerve fibres arranged longitudi- 
nally and of a supporting material of two kinds. 1. 
Ordinary fibrous connective tissue connected with septa 
from the pia matter carrying blood vessels. 2. Neu- 
roglia. 

36. What is the general rule regarding the size of 
different parts of the cord ? 

A. Each part is in direct proportion to the size and 
number of nerve roots given off from it and has but lit- 
tle relation to the size or number of those given off be- 
low it. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



37. How do you prove that at least half of the nerve 
fibres entering the cord must terminate in the cord ? 

A. By counting the number of fibres in a transverse 
section of the cord at its upper end and comparing the 
result with the number entering or leaving it by the an- 
terior and posterior roots of each pair of nerves. 

38. Of what is the gray matter composed? 

A. Of groups of nerve cells, of a meshwork of med- 
ullated fibres aad of a delicate network of axis cylinders 
called ' k Gerlach's network." Mingling and supporting 
the above a meshwork of neuroglia. 

39. How many groups of multipolar cells can be dis- 
tinguished in the gray matter ? 

A. 1. In the anterior horn. 2. In the posterior 
horn. 3. Intrinsic cells scattered throughout. 

40. By what methods have the subdivisions of the 
white matter according to function been determined ? 

A. 1. By the Embryological method. 2. By the 
degeneration or Wallerian method. 

41 . Upon what does the degeneration method depend ? 

A. Upon the fact that if a nerve fibre is separated 
from its nerve cell it degenerates or wastes away. It 
consists in tracing the course of tracts of degenerated 
fibres which result from an injur}' to any part of the cen- 
tral nervous system. When they degenerate below a les- 
ion the tract is said to be of descending degeneration, 
when above it of ascending degeneration. 

42. Name the tracts of descending degeneration. 

A. 1. The crossed pyramidal tract. 2. The director 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



uncrossed pyramidal tract. 3. Anterolateral descend- 
ing tract. 4. Comma tract. 

43. Name the tracts of ascending degeneration. 

A. 1. Posteromedian column. 2. Direct Cerebellar 
tract. 3. Antero-lateral ascending tract. 4. Posterior 
marginal zone. 

44. What fibres do not degenerate either way when 
the cord is cut across ? 

A . Those parts called commissural fibres which connect 
different levels of the cord. They are 1. Autero-lateral 
column. 2. Lateral limiting layer. 3. Column of Bur- 
dach. 

45. Describe the Spinal nerves ? 

A. Thirty-one pairs. Each nerve arises by two roots 
an anterior and posterior, the latter being the larger. 
Directly after their emergence through separate apertures 
in the dura mater, as the roots lie in the intervertebral 
foramen, a ganglion is found on the posterior root. The 
aut. root is in contact with the ant surface of the gang- 
lion, but some of its fibres enter the ganglion. Beyond 
the ganglion the two roots coalesce and form a compound 
or mixed spinal nerve which in turn gives off anterior 
or ventral and posterior dorsal branches, each contain- 
ing fibres from both roots as well as a third or visceral 
branch — the ramus communicans to the sympathetic. 

46. Into how many branches do the anterior roots 
divide as they enter the cord ? 

A. Into three. 1. Internal. 2. Middle. 3. Ex- 
ternal. 

47. How are the posterior roots divided? 



i2i OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. Into two sets i. Internal or median. 2. Externa! 
or lateral. 

48. Of what from a physiologist's point of view is the 
spinal cord made up ? 

A. Of a mass of nerve units or neurons, which are 
divided into 1. Motor neurons, 2, sensory neurons and 
3, intermediate neurons which are commissural in func- 
tion. 

49. What are the functions of the spinal nerve roots? 

A. The anterior are efferent. The posterior are af- 
ferent. 

^o. What are the functions of the Ganglia on the pos- 
terior roots ? 

A. Centres for nutrition of the nerve fibres given off 

from them. 

51. Give function of white matter of cord. 

A. Mainly the conduction of motor and sensory im- 
pressions to and from the brain. 

52. Give function of multipolar of nerve cells. 
A. Centres for reflection and trophic centres. 

53. Give function of gray matter. 
A. Reflex action. 

54. Name the tracts of the cord. 

A. 1. Direct pyramidal tract. 2. Autero-lateral col- 
umn. 3. Ascending lateral column. 4. Crossed pyra- 
midal tract. 5. Direct cerebellar tract. 6. Column of 
Budach. 7. Column of Goll and Clarke's column. 8. 
Lissaner's columu. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



55. What is the function of the column of Goll or pos- 
terior median column ? 

A. It carries sensory impulses of muscle senses to its 
nucleus 011 the same side of the medulla. 

56. What is the function of the direct cerebellar 
tract ? 

A. It carries sensations that subserve the sense of 
equilibrium to the cerebellum. 

57. How are sensations of heat and cold and touch 
and pain carried ? 

A. By the fibres of the autero-lateral tract of the same 
and the opposite side. 

58. How are motor impressions conveyed downward 
from the brain ? 

A. Partly by the direct pyramidal but mostly by the 
crossed pyramidal tract. 

59. What two kinds of reflex action dependent upon 
the spinal cord have we. 

A. 1. Cutaneous reflexes. 2. Muscle reflexes 

60. Are the reflex acts performed by the cord inde- 
pendent of the brain ? 

A. They are, but they are constantly being controlled 
by the brain which hinders, directs or modifies them at 
will. 

61. Name the special centres in the cord ? 

A. 1. Defaecation. 2. Micturition. 3. Genito-Spi- 
nal centre. 4. Erection of the penis centre. 5. Partu- 
rition. 6. Centre for the tone of muscles. 



126 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

62. Do cells in the cord possess automatism ? 

A. It is doubtful, but possible in the case of vaso- 
motor centres, sweating centres and in connection with 
the tone of muscles. 

63. What influence has the cord on the nutrition of 
tissues ? 

A. It governs the nutrition of the muscles, bones, 
joints and skin, probably through its relationship to the 
vaso-motor nerves. 

64. Has it fibres having other functions ? 

A. It contains fibres which 1. Regulate the dilatation 
of the pupil. 2. Which have to do with the glycogenic 
function of the liver. 3. Which control the nerve supply 
of the vessels of the face and hand. 4. Which accelerate 
the heart's action. 5. Have a termotaxic action on the 
muscles. 

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

65. How are the portions of the central nervous sys- 
tem classified ? 

A. 1. Cerebral hemispheres with the corpora striata, 
developed from the cerebral vesicles and 
enclosing lateral ventricles. 

2. Fore-brain, formed of the parts, including the 

optic thalami, which inclose the third ven- 
tricle. 

3. Mid- brain, consisting of the parts inclosing the 

Aqueduct of Sylvius, viz , the corpora qua- 
dngemini, which form the roof, and the 
crura cerebri which form the floor. 

4. Hind- brain, the pous varolii and the cerebel- 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 127 



lum form respectively the floor and roof of the 
fore part of the hind-brain, and the bulb, the 
floor part of the hind-brain, the roof being 
practically absent. 

66. Describe the distribution of the gray matter in the 
bulb f 

A. In the lower part it is like the cord. Higher up 
it is found mostly posterior around the central canal 
When the central canal opens into the 4th ventricle, the 
gray matter comes to that surface and consists of the 
nuclei of origin of the cranial nerves — 12th, nth, 10th, 
9th and 8th; more externally of the nucleus gracilis and 
neucleus cuneatus. Here also are the olivary bodies to- 
gether with the accessory olives and the external arcuate 
nuclei. 

67. How is the gray matter distributed in the Pons 
Varolii. 

A. In addition to the origin of the 7th,. 6th and 5th 
cranial nerves in the fl :>or of the 4th ventricle on the dor- 
sal aspect of the pons, we have in the back part the su- 
perior olives, in the front part the locus coeruleus. 

68. How is it distributed in mid-brain ? 

A. Gray matter preponderates in the optic ihalami, 
corpora quadrigemimi, and corpora geniculata. Also sur- 
rounding the acqueduct of Sylvius, and in other parts of 
the crura as the red nucleus and locus niger. 

69. How is the gray matter distributed in the cere- 
bral hemispheres ? 

A. The cerebral cortex is made up of gray matter- 
inclosing white matter. The corpus striatum is made up 
of the same material. 



123 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



70. How is it distributed in the cerebellum ? 

A. Gray matter forms the incasing material. In the 
exterior it forms the corpora dentata. 

71. Locate and describe the Medulla Oblongata. 

A. At upper end of cord and connects it with brain. 
Formed by a widening out of columns of cord. Com- 
posed of gra} T and white substance. Rests upon basilar 
groove of occipital bone. Its columns are pyriform and 
continuous with those of cord, and it is divided into the 
anterior and posterior pyramids, restiform and olivary 
bodies. 

72. Where are the Olivary bodies? 

A. On the outer side of each anterior pyramid. 

73. How is the fourth ventricle formed ? 

A. By the divergence of the restiform bodies a space 
is laid open. 

74. Describe the redistribution in the medulla. 

A. The anterior p}'ramids receive same fibres from 
the middle of both laterial columns of the cord. The}' 
then pass upward through the eras to the cerebrum, 
sending small masses of fibres to the olivary body — to 
form the olivary fasciculus, and to the cerebellum as 
the} 7 go. 

75. What course do the majority of the fibres of the 
lateral columns of the cord pursue in the medulla ? 

A. They divide into an outer, inner and middle part. 
The outer go with the restiform tract to cerebellum. The 
middle decussate with their fellows opposite and form 
part of the anterior pyramid of the opposite side. The 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY 129 



inner pass to the cerebrum along the floor of the fourth 
ventricle, where they are known as the fascicuhis teres. 

76. How are the posterior columns of the cord rep- 
resented in the medulla ? 

A. By the posterior pyramids and by the restiform 
body. 

77. Does an impulse arising in the brain pass down 
on the same side in the cord and cause a contraction of 
muscles on the same side ? 

A. No. It crosses over in the medulla, goes down 
the opposite side of the cord and is distributed to the 
muscles of the opposite side of the body. 

78. Where is a pain in the right hand recognized? 

A. In the left hemisphere of the brain, the transfer- 
ence taking place upon the entrance of the post roots or 
sensory spinal nerves — from the right hand — to the cord. 

79. Give function of medulla. 

A. 1. Conduction. 2. Reflection. 3. Automatism. 

80. Name special centres of medulla, with example 
of each. 

A. 1. Simple reflex centre — mastication. 

2. Automatic centre — respiration. 

3. Control centre — sweat centre controlling spinal 

sweat centres. 

4. Trophic centre — vaso motor. 

5. Special centre for hearing and taste. 

Si. Can you prove that the medulla contains the vital 
centres ? 

A. Yes; as both cerebrum and cerebellum may be de- 
stroyed, yet the heart and lungs continue to w 7 ork. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



THE CRANIAL NERVES. 

82. How many pairs of cranial nerves and give their 
origin ? 

A. Twelve pairs and all arise from the base of the 
encephalon in a double series — from the under surface of 
the anterior cerebral lobes to the lower end of the me- 
dulla. 

83. Name the nerves of special sense. 

A. Olfactory, Optic, Auditory, part of Glosso Pharyn- 
geal and part of the Fifth. 

84. Name the nerves of motion. 

A. Third, Fourth, lesser division of Fifth, Sixth, 
Facial, Hypoglossal. 

85. Name the nerves of common sensation and mixed 
nerves. 

A. Common sensation, greater part of Fifth. 

( Glosso Pharvngeal. 
Mixed nerves-' Vagus. 

/ Spinal accessory. 

86. Give function of olfactory nerve. 

A. Governs the sense of smell and conducts impres- 
sions which give rise to odorous sensations. 

87. Give function of Optic nerve. 

A. Governs sense of sight and conducts to the brain 
the luminous impressions which give rise to this sense. 

88. Give function of 3rd or Motor Oculi. 
A. 1. Governs movements of eyeball. 

2. Governs movements of iris. 

3. Elevates upper lid. 

4. Influences accommodation tor distances. 

89. Give function of 4th or Patheticus. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 131 

A. Exclusively motor to sup. oblique muscles, hence 
governs their action on eyeball. 

90. Describe the origin ot the Fifth nerve. 

A. The fibres of origin of the Fifth nerve arise by two 
roots of which the anterior or motor can be traced to two 
masses of multipolar cells on the inner side and close to 
the gray tubercles of Rolando in the floor of the fourth 
ventricle. The posterior of sensory root arises directly 
from the tubercles of Rolando. The two roots pass 
through an oval opening in the dura mater on ihe su- 
perior border of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, 
above the internal auditory meatus. They then run be- 
tween the bone and the dura to the apex of the petrous 
portion of the temporal bone, where the fibres of the sen- 
sory root form a large semi-lunar ganglion — the Gas- 
serian. The motor root passes beneath the ganglion 
without having any connection with it and joins outside 
the cranium with one of the trunks derived from it. 

91. Name the three branches of the Fifth nerve, and 
give function of each. 

A. 1. Opthalmic — sensory. 

2. Superior Maxillary — sensory. 

3. Inferior Maxillary — motor and sensory. 

92. Name the branches of the Fifth nerve that supply 
the teeth. 

A. Posterior and anterior dental branches of the sup- 
perior maxillary supply the upper teeth. Dental and 
incisor branches of the inferior dental division of the in- 
ferior maxillary supply the lower teeth. 

93. Give distribution of fifth nerve. 

A. The large root after leaving the Gasserian gang- 
lion receives fibres from the carotid plexus of the sympa- 
thetic — divides into three branches, which are thus dis- 
tr ibuted : 



i 3 2 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

( i ) Opthalmic — receives communicating filaments 
from the sympathetic and sends sensitive fibres to the 
motor nerves of eyeball. Then is distributed to ciliary 
ganglia, lachrymal gland, sac, and caruncle, conjunctiva, 
integument of upper eyelid, forehead, side of head and 
nose, front part of scalp ciliary muscle and iris. 

(2) Superior Maxillary branch — to spheno palatine 
ganglia, skin of temple and lower eyelid, side of fore- 
head, nose, cheek and upper lip, teeth of upper jaw and 
alveolar processes. 

(3) Inferior Maxillary branch — after receiving fibres 
from small root and facial — to sub-maxillary ganglia, pa- 
rotid and sub-lingual glands, external auditory meatus, 
mucous membrane of mouth, anterior portion of tongue, 
arches of palate, teeth of lower jaw, skin of lower face 
and masticatory muscles. 

The small root passes through foramen ovale after 
having passed beneath Gasserian ganglion, joins inferior 
maxillary division of large root and then divides into an 
anterior and posterior branch. The ant. branch goes to 
temporal, buccal, masseter, internal and external ptery- 
goid muscles. The post branch has been described un- 
der head 3. 

94. Give a table of the distribution of the Fifth Nerve. 

A. 

.'d fi. Lachrymal branch. 

i^.-~„4^i k~,~~-u \ Supra-orbital nerve, 
t rental branch. j Su £ ra _ Trochlear nerve . 

j Gauglonic nerve to ciliary ganglion.) 
ft* - ■{ j Long Ciliary nerves. 

J Infra-trochlear nerves. 

| Internal set. To septum of nose. 

I T? Yfprrio i o pf t To mucous membrane 

I ^ xternal bet - ) and integument of nose" 



3. Nasal branch. 



tt o 1 



f Orbital or Temporo Malar Nerve 
u ^ w 1. Inthe Spheno- j Spheno-Palatine nerves (to Meckels ganglion) 
Maxillary fossa. ] Posterior Dental \ Superficial dental branches. 
I. Nerve. / Deep dental branches. 



CO 


> 


2 


3; 


u 


s 





>»j 


u 


u 


<D 


r. 


ft 




- 




J 





2. In the Infraorbital \ 
canal. 



Anterior Dental nerve. 



1 Palpebral branches. 
,3. On the face. < Nasal branches. 

/ Labial branches. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



133 



11 



£ J2 



JS ! 



S 1 

a l 

*- [ 
o : 

<y i 

c 



From the Ante- 
rior Trunk. 



From the Poste- 
rior Trunk. 



(I. Masseteric branch. 
| 2. Deep f Anterior branch. 
! Temporal \ Posterior branch. 
\ 3. Buccal branch. 

[4- Pterygoid branch) «, 

Auriculo-Temporal \ Auricular. 
r ( Temporal. 

Gustatory Nerve. 

f Mylo-hyoid. 
| 3. Inferior Dental j Incisor. 
Nerve. j Mental. 

[ t Dental. 



95. Give a table showing the Ganglia of the Fifth 
Nerve, their situation, roots and distribution. 



r 










SYMPA- 








SITUA- 


SENSORY 


MOTOR 


THETIC 


BRANCHES OF 






TION. 


ROOT. 


ROOT. 


ROOOT. 


DISTRIBUTION. 




Ophthal- 


Between 


5th Nerve 




Caver- 






mic or 


the optic 


Nasal 




nous 


To Ciliary 




Ciliary. 


nerveand 


branch. 


3d Nerve Plexus. 


muscle and 


i 




external 








iris. 




Meckels 


rectus. 
Spheno 












5th 


7 th 


Carotid 


Orbital. Nasal. 




or 


Maxillary Nerve 


Nerve 


Plexus 


Naso-palatine. 




Spheno 


Fossa. 


Spheno 


through 


bv means 


Anterior or large pal- 




Palatine 




Palatine 


Vidian 


of Vidian 


atine, middle or ex- 








branches 


and 


Nerve. 


ternal palatine 


Dfl 








petrosal 




Post f Levator palati 










branches 




or | 


bo 












small -{ Azygos Uvuae 


05 












pala- | 














tine. [Palato-glossus. 


rt 




Below 


5th 


7th 


Plexus 




l-l 




Foramen 


Nerve 


Nerve 


on mid- 




<L/ 




Ovale. 


Auricu- 


through 


dle Men- 




<u 






lo-Tem- 


small pe- 


ingeal 











poral 


trosal 5th 


artery 


To tensor tympan 




Otic. 




branch. 
Sth~" 


Nerve 
through 
ptery- 
goid 
branch. 

7th 




and tensor palati 
muscles. 




Submax- 


Above 


Plexus 






illary. 


the Sub- 


Nerve 


Nerve 


on the 


To submaxilliary 






maxil- 


Lingual 


through 


Facial 


gland and mucous 






lary 


or Gus- 


Chorda 


artery. 


membrane of 






gland. 


tatory 
branch. 


Tym- 
pani 




mouth. 




t 






branch. 







134 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

96. Give function of the Fifth or Trifacial nerve. 

A. Endows all parts of the head to which it is dis- 
tributed with sensibility; through the small root gives 
motion to the masticatory muscles; through fibres de- 
rived from sympathetic it governs the nutrition of the 
special senses. 

97. Give function of Sixth or Abducens nerve. 
A. Turns the eyeball outward. 

98. Give function of Facial nerve or 7th. 

A. The nerve of expression, co-ordinates muscles, 
which express emotions, influences sense of taste, deglu- 
tition, movements of uvula and soft palate, tension of 
membrana tympani, and secretions of maxillary and pa- 
rotid glands. Influences smell, hearing and vision indi- 
rectly. 

99. Give function of Auditor} 7 or 8th nerve. 

A. Governs hearing and conducts to brain impres- 
sions of sound giving rise to it. 

100. Give function of Glossopharyngeal or 9th nerve. 

A. Gives sensibility to pharynx, presides over sense 
of taste, and controls reflex movements of deglutition 
and vomiting. 

ior. Give the function of the Pneumogastric or 10th. 

A. 1. Motor influence to the pharynx, oesophagus, 
stomach, small intestines, larynx, trachea, 
bronchi and lungs. 

2. Sensory influence to same region. 

3. In part vaso-motor to same regions. 

4. Inhibitor} 1 - influence to heart. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 135 

5. Inhibitor) 7 afferent impulses to vaso motor 

centre. 

6. Exeito secretory to salivary glands. 

7. Exeito motor in coughing, vomiting, etc. 



102. What is function of Spinal Accessory or nth? 

A. 1. Governs phonation. 

2. Influences deglutition. 

3. Inhibits action of heart. 

4. Aids in controlling respiration. 

103. Give function of Hypo-glossal or 12th. 

A. 1. Governs motion of tongue. 

2. Influences mastication. 

3. Influences deglutition and articulation. 

104. Locate, describe and give function of Pons 
Varolii. 

A. Situated above medulla, below crura cerebri, and 
between hemispheres of cerebellum. Made up of trans- 
verse and longitudinal fibres which make in truth a 
bridge, conducting impressions from one part of cerebro 
spinal axis to another. 

105. Give function of crura cerebri. 

A. Act as conducting organs. Act as nerve centre 
for co-ordination of muscles, — directing movements of 
the eyeball and other muscles. 

106. Give function of Corpora Striata. 

A. They are central nerve organs analogous to the 
Cerebral cortex, but not so highly specialized. 

: 107. Locate Optici Thalaml and Corpora Striata. 

A. The Optic Thalami are situated beyond the cor- 



136 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

pora striata, rest upon crura cerebri and their upper sur- 
faces project into the lateral ventricle. Corpora Striata — 
in front of the Optici Thalami partly within and partly 
without the lateral ventricle. 

108. Give function of Optici Thalami. 

A. It is the sensory bond between the cms cerebri 
and the cerebrum. 

109. Give the function of Corpora Quadragemini. 

A. 1. Their destruction causes total blindness. 

2. I,oss of one blinds eye of opposite side. 

3. Principal nerve centres for visual sensations. 

4. Centre governing movement of iris. 

5. Centre for co-ordination of movements of the 

eyes. 

THE CEREBRUM. 

1 10. Locate and give the shape of the Cerebrum. 

A. Enclosed in the skull, resting upon the anterior 
and middle fossae of the base of the skull, and behind 
upon a membrane — the tentorium cerebelli. Divided into 
two hemispheres by the great longitudinal fissure. Its 
upper surface is ovoidal in form and convex. The two 
hemispheres are connected by a broad band of white 
matter — the corpus collosum — which is seen, upon sepa- 
rating them — lying at the bottom of the longitudinal 
fissure. 

in. What, where and of what use is the Falx cerebri? 

A. A strong process of the dura mater, which de- 
scends into the longitudinal fissure and is attached to the 
tentorium cerebelli behind It is like a double layered 
partition separating the two hemispheres, and contains 
the blood vessels supplying the hemispheres with blood. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 137 

112. Of what is the Cerebrum composed? — how is it 
arranged and divided ? 

A. Of gray and white nerve substance. The gray 
externally; the while, made up of bundles of medullated 
nerve fibres, forms the bulk of the cerebrum and is in- 
ternal. The cerebrum is divided into lobes by fissuras 
which are readily seen upon its surfaces. These lobes 
are: 1. Frontal. 2 Parietal. 3. Tempero Sphenoidal. 
4. Occipital. 3. Central lobe or Island of Reil. 

113. What are the convolutions of the Cerebrum? 
By what are they outlined and what do they indicate ? 

A. Small eminences seen covering the surfaces of the 
cerebrum. Separated from each other by depressions of 
various depths called sulci. The outer surfaces of the 
convolutions and intervening sulci are composed of gray 
matter — the cortical substance. The greater the number 
of convolutions and the depth of the intervening sulci 
the greater the intellect of the individual. 

114. Name some of the chemical elements making up 
nerve tissue ? 

A. Albumin, nuclein, neuro keratin, potash, gelatin, 
cerebrin, lecithin and protagon are found. 

115. Give reaction of nerve tissue. 

A. 1. Acid — when active and after death. 
2. Neutral or alkaline — when passive. 

116. Is the reaction of the brain different from that of 
other nervous matter ? 

A, It is supposed to be always acid. 

117. Describe and give function of corpus callosum. 



ixS OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. A thick stratum of transverse white fibres exposed 
at the bottom of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the 
two hemispheres and forming the roof of a space in the 
interior of each hemisphere — the lateral ventricle. Its 
function is the conduction of the nerve impulses from the 
cortex of one hemisphere to the cortex of the other. 

1 1 ja. Describe the real arrangement of the parts of the 
cerebrum. 

A. The parts are disposed in a linear series as follows 
from before backwards — olfactory lobes, cerebral hemi- 
spheres, corpora quadrigtmini or optic lobes, cerebellum, 
medulla ablongata. 

nS. Describe the septum lucidum and tell what it 
contains. 

A. A thin semi-transparent membrane attached above 
to the under surface of the corpus callosum below to the 
fornix. It thus forms a double partition between the 
lateral ventricles. Between its two walls an interval 
fUled with fluid, the fifth ventricle, is contained. 

119. What and where is the foramen of Monroe? 

A. A "Y" shaped opening between the two lateral 
^entricles above and the third ventricle below. 

120. Locate third ventricle and tell how it communi- 
cates with the fourth ventricle. 

A. Narrow, obiong fissure between optici thalami, ex- 
tending to base of brain. The iter a tertio ad quartum 
ventriculum or acqueduct of Sylvius. 

121. Describe the blood supply of the brain. 

A. The long medullary arteries pass from the pia 
matter to the white matter — they are terminal and do not 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 139 

anastomose. The Cortical, anterior mostly, enter the 
gray matter of the cortex — they anastomose and are not 
terminal. The nutrition of the rest of the brain is de- 
rived from branches given off by the circle of Willis. 

122. What does the anastomosis of the cortical arteries 
guard against ? 

A. In embolus or thrombosis of a cortical branch, it 
guards against the starvation of the area supplied and its 
consequent inhibited action. Thus the seat of intellec- 
tion, as the most important part of the cerebrum, is pre- 
served, while if this accident occur in the long medullary 
arteries the part supplied is starved and inhibited because 
those arteries are terminal and do not anastomose. 

123. What is the weight of the Brain ? 

A. The brain of an adult man weighs from 48 to 50 
oz. or about 3 lbs. In absolute weight it exceeds that of 
all animals except the elephant and whale. 

124. How does the weight of the female brain com- 
pare with the above ? 

. A. It weighs on an average 5 oz. less. 

125. What are the distinctive characters of the Hu- 
man Brain ? 

A. 1. Rudimentary condition of ol factor}' lobes. 

2. Perfectly defined fissure of Sylvius. 

3. Posterior lobe completely covers cerebellum. 

4. Presence of posterior cornua in lateral ven- 

tricles. 

126. Give functions of the Cerebrum. 

A. 1 . Organ by which are perceived sensations which 
can be retained and regarding which we can 
judge. 



i4o OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



2. Organ of the will. 

3. Retains impressions of sensible things, repro- 

ducing them in subjective sensations and 
ideas. 

4. Medium of all high emotions and feelings, of 

memory, judgment, understanding, reflec- 
tion, imagination. 

127. What proves that the Cerebrum is the seat of 
consciousness and the intellect ? 

A. Because when the Cerebrum is injured conscious- 
ness and the intellect are both impaired or lost. 

128. Define Cerebral localization. 

A. The definite location of areas in the Cerebrum 
which govern or control various functions in various 
parts of the body. 

129. Locate speech centre and tell which side is best 
developed. 

A. It is situated at the end of the horizontal fissure 
of Sylvius in the third frontal convolution and Island of 
Reil. It is best developed on tfie left side. 

130. Describe roughly the division of the surface of 
the Cerebrum according to function. 

A. The Anterior lobes are the seat of the intellect. 
The middle lobes are the seat of motor impules. The 
posterior lobes are the seat of perception and sensibility. 

131. Locate the motor centre for the arm and leg. 

A. The upper portions of the ascending parietal and 
frontal convolutions govern the leg; while two areas 
immediately below, govern the movements of the arm. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 141 

132. How may sleep be produced? 

A. By any agency that will reduce the amount of 
blood supplied to the brain or produce anaemia of that 
organ. 

133. Give function of cerebellum. 

A. It governs the co-ordination of movements and 
maintains equilibrium . It is in* intimate relation also 
with the vagus. Each half governs the opposite side of 
the body and both halves must act together to preserve 
the equilibrium and co-ordination of movements. 

THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM. 

134. What do we mean by the sympathetic nervous 
system ? 

A. 1. A double chain of ganglia and fibres which ex- 
tends from the cranium to the pelvis along 
each side of the vertebral column. 

2. The cardiac, solar, and hypogastric, aortic, 

spermatic and renal plexuses. 

3. Various ganglia and plexuses in the substance 

of many of the viscera. 

4. The ganglia on posterior roots of spinal nerves 

on the glosso pharyngeal and vagus, and on 
sensory root of fifth. The sympathetic sys- 
tem connects freely with parts of itself and 
the cerebro spinal system. 

135. Name the functions of efferent sympathetic nerve 
fibres. 

A. They supply: 

1. Muscles of vascular system with vaso motor 
fibres. 



142 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY, 

2. Muscles of viscera with motor and inhibitory 

fibres 

3. Secretory gland cells with motor fibres. 

136. What kind of nerve fibres are found in the sym- 
pathetic system ? 

A. Non-medullated or gray fibres. 

137. Give function of sympathetic. 

A. 1. Independent — that is centres capable of acting 
without any impulses from higher centres, 
but sometimes governed by the spinal cen- 
tres, e.g., cardiac ganglia, mesentric plexus 
of intestine, plexuses of uterus, falliopiau 
tubes, lymph and blood vessels. 
2. Dependant — these governed by higher centres, 
e. g., the sensory fibres of the splanchnics. 

THE SENSES. 

138. How does the mind gain its knowledge and upon 
what is it based ? 

A. Through the medium of the nervous system the 
mind gains a knowledge of the existence of various parts 
of the body and of the external world. All knowledge 
is based upon sensations resulting from the stimulation 
of certain centres in the brain by impulses conveyed to 
them by afferent (sensory) nerves. 

139. What is necessary to sensation ? 

A. 1. A peripheral end organ for the reception of 
impressions. 

2. Nerve for conducting it. 

3. Nerve centre for feeling or perceiving it. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 115 

140. How are sensations classed ? 
A. 1. As common. 2. As special. 

141. Describe common sensations. 

A. All which cannot be distinctly localized in any 
part of the body, as fatigue, discomfort, faintness, sa- 
tiety, etc. 

142. Describe special sensations. 

A. From these we gain our knowledge of the exter- 
nal w r orld by medium of organs which can be distinctly 
localized in some particular part of the body, as(.i) touch 
by touch corpuscles, (2) smell by olf acton- cells lining 
nostrils, (3) sight by eye, (4) hearing by ear, (5) taste 
by taste goblets of tongue, etc. 

143. Describe touch. 

A. An exaltation of common sensation which ren- 
ders us conscious of the presence of a stimulus from the 
slightest to the most intense degree. It enables us to 
judge of the form and size of bodies, of their weight ; 
gives us an idea ot the temperature surrounding us. 

144. What is pain? 

A. The sensation of tactile sensibility, pressure or 
temperature carried to an inordinate degree. 

145. Tell what you know of the sense of taste, 

A. The sense results from the contact of sapid sub- 
stances with the taste goblets, the special form in which 
the gustatory nerves end in the papillae of the tongue. 
Dry substances must first be moistened, as if the tongue 
be dried no taste is noticed. The surface of the soft 
palate, its arches, the uvula, tonsils and upper pharynx 
aid in tasting. 



144 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



146. Do other senses aid taste ? 

A. The senses of smell and sight aid taste, as is well 
seen when the eyes are closed and nostrils are shut. No 
difference is then perceived between diverse substances 
w 7 hen placed on the tongue. 

147. Tell what you know of the sense of smell. 

A. It is brought about by the contact of minute bod- 
ies floating in the air with the special end organs of the 
olfactory nerves in the mucous membrane of the middle 
and upper meatus of the nose. Sense of smell is very 
acute, 10 ooooooo °* a & ram of musk can be noticed. 



THE HEARING. 

148. Describe the external ear. 

A. That part of the ear external to the membrana 
tympani. made up of the pinna or auricle and the exter- 
nal auditory canal or meatus. 

149. Describe the middle ear. 

A. A cavity in the temporal bone communicating 
with the pharynx by a cylindriform canal, the Eustachian 
tube. The middle ear is separated from the external ear 
by the membrana tympani. The Eustachian tube and 
cavity of middle ear are lined with mucous membrane 
continuous with that lining pharynx. Its walls are osse- 
us except where apertures in them are closed with mem- 
brane, as at fenestra rotunda and fenestra ovalis, by which 
it is separated from internal ear and membrana tympani, 
by which it is separated from external ear. It contains a 
chain of small bones extending from membrana tympani 
to fenestra ovalis. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY 145 

150. Give functions of external ear, membrana tym- 
pani and chain of bones. 

A. The external ear collects and reflects sound waves 
toward a central point, the external auditory canal. The 
canal carries the sound waves to the membrana tympani 
in which the) 7 set up sonorous vibrations, w 7 hich in turn 
are commuicated through chain of small bones to mem- 
brane covering fenestra ovalis. 

151. Give function of Eustachian tubes. 

A. They maintain an equilibrium between air in tym- 
panum and external ear, thus preventing too great tension 
of membrana tympani. They render sound clear and 
supply tympanum with air. 

153. Give function of internal ear. 

A. It receives vibrations conducted across middle ear 
b} T chain of bones to fenestra ovalis, and by column of air 
in tympanum to fenestra rotunda. The membranes cov- 
ering these openings excite vibrations in perilymph, 
walls of membranous labyrinth and endolymph, which ex- 
cite the terminal filaments of the auditory nerve by which 
the} 7 are conveyed to the brain. 

154. Tell the differences in sound which the ear dis- 
tinguishes. 

A. Loudness, pitch and quality. 
SIGHT. 

155. Give function of eyelids. 

A. Movable folds of skin, kept in shape by a thin 
plate of yellow elastic tissue, which protect and moisten 
the eveballs. 



146 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

156. Give function of eyelashes. 

A. They have a tactile sensibility which by reflex ac- 
tion causes the eyelids to close when a foreign body 
touches them. They thus prevent the entrance of foreign 
bodies and protect the eyes. 

157. Where is the lachrymal gland and give its use ? 

A. In the upper and outer angle of the orbit. It se- 
cretes a saline fluid which lubricates the eye, and runs 
over in form of tears when the secretion is excessive. 
Ordinarily it escapes by puncta lachrymalis and lachry- 
mal sac through the uasal ducts into the nose. 

158. What stimulus excites the optic nerve ? 

A. Light. Electrical, mechanical or other stimuli 
each and all excite sensations of light when applied to 
the optic nerve. 

159. What is .the eyeball ? 

A. The special end organ of the optic nerve. 

160. Why does it move ? 

A. So that diverse objects can be brought into the 
range of vision without moving the head. 

161. Give function of Sclerotic coat. 

A. It maintains the shape and protects the delicate 
internal coats of the eyeball. It covers the posterior 
two-thirds only, making way for the cornea in front 
through which the rays of light pass, — a window pane 
lets light into a room. 

162. Is the cornea supplied with blood vessels? 

A. It is not, but derives its nutritiou from the blood 
vessels at the corneal margin. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 147 

163. Give function of choroid coat. 

A. Prevents the transmission of light from the exte- 
rior, — except by the cornea, and stops reflection by its 
black pigment cells. 

164. Give function of ciliary muscle. 

A. Governs the diameter and shape of crystalline lens 
and so is called the muscle of accommodation. It binds 
the choroid to the sclerotic also. 

165. Give the function of the retina. 

A. It is formed by the expansion of the optic nerve 
and receives the impressions of light. 

166. How do the nerve filaments end in the retina? 

A. In the rods and cones layer, of which the rods are 
the most highly developed. 

167. What is the blind spot and macula lutea ? 

A. The blind spot is the point of entrance of the optic 
nerve and does not respond to stimulation by light. The 
macula lutea is in the centre of the retina and rays of 
light here produce the greatest visual impression due to 
the greater number of cones here. 

168. Is every part of the retina equally receptive to 
all the rays of light ? 

A. It is not. Every part receives different colored 
rays. 

169. Give function of aqueous humor. 

A. It allows free movement of the iris, supports the 
cornea and aids in refraction. 

170. Give function of vitreous humor. 



i 4 8 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

A. It fills the eyeball, keeps it tense and aids largely 
in refraction. 

171. Give function of Crystalline lens. 

A. It is bi-convex and acts as a magnifying glass. It 
is the main refracting medium of the eye, directing the 
rays of light so that they fall properly on the retina. It 
lies between the aqueous and vitrous humors. 

172. How are images thrown on the retina? 

A. The lens being bi. convex inverts the images and 
if the brain did not interpret the image in the proper po- 
sition, we would see even-thing upside down. 

173. To what instrument may the optical apparatus 
be compared ? 

A. To the camera used by photographers. The 
transparent media of eye correspond to lens of front part 
of camera. In the camera the images are thrown upon a 
ground glass screen at the back of box — interior of which 
is painted black. In the eye the box is represented by 
eyeball with its choroidal pigment; the screen by the 
retina. In the camera the screen is enabled to receive 
clear images of objects at different distances by an appar- 
atus for focussing, corresponding to contrivance in eye 
described under head of accommodation. 

174. What is Accommodation? 

A. The power of adapting the eye to vision at differ- 
ent distances, brought about by a* varying shape of the 
crystalline lens. The nearer the object the more convex 
the anterior surface of the lens becomes. This increased 
convexity is produced by the contraction of the ciliary 
muscle. When the muscle relexes the lens become less 
convex by virtue of the elasticity of its suspensory liga- 
ment. 



• JO- 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 149 

Describe the action of the iris. 



A. A musculo membranous curtain with a hole in 
the centre for the admission of light to the retina. The 
inner surface is covered with dark pigment, so all light 
is shut out except the rays admitted through pupil. 
Contraction of pupil occurs (1) On exposure of eye to 
bright light. (2) When the eye is focussed on near 
objects. (3) On local application of eserine. 

Pupil Dilates : (1) In dim light. (2) Eye focussed for 
distant objects. (3) On local or internal administration 
of atropine and its allies. 

176. What is refraction ? 

A. The optical adjustment of the eye which depends 
on its anatomical structure. 

177. What is the near point and the far point ? 

A. The near point is the nearest point at which the 
eye can perceive an object held before it. The far point 
is the longest distance at which an object can be perceived. 

178. Define Chromatic Aberration. 

A. It is the breaking up of rays of white light into 
their primary colors owing to the different colored lights 
of which ordinary light is composed. It is due to the 
defect in the optical apparatus, but is diminished by the 
iris, which shuts out the marginal rays. 

179. Define Spherical Aberration. 

A. Luminous rays passing through a convex lens are 
irregularly refracted. Those striking margin are bent 
more than those passing through the centre. The iris 
also, here, by cutting off the marginal rays make us suf- 
fer little from this cause. 



150 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



i So. What is hypermetropia ? 

A. Far sightedness — a condition in which the antero- 
posterior diameter of the eye is less than normal, the 
image being focussed behind the retina. 

i Si. What is myopia? 

A. Short sight, in which the antero-posterior diameter 
of eye is greater than normal and image is thus focussed 
on point in front of retina. 

182. W T hat is emmetropia ? 

A. A normal eye, the image being focussed on the 
retina. 

1 S3. What is astigmatism ? 

A. Greater curvature of eyeball in one meridian than 
in others. 

184. What is presbyopia ? 

A. A loss of the power of accommodation, common 
in old age. 

185. What glass will correct myopia ? 
A. A concave glass. 



GEXERATIOX AXD DEVELOPMENT. 

186. Define Generation and Development. 

A. Generation means the original cause of growth. 
Development means the manner of growth after it is once 

started. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



GENERATIVE ORGANS OF THE FEMALE. 

187. Name the generative organs of the female. 

A. Two ovaries, two fallopian tubes or oviducts, the 
uterus, a canal called the vagina and its orifice the vulva. 

188. Give function of ovaries. 

A. They form the ova or eggs. 

189. Give function of Fallopian tubes. 

A. They conduct the egg from the ovaries to the 
uterus. 

190. Give function of uterus. 

A. Cavity in which, if impregnated, the ovum is re- 
tained until it is fully developed and capable of maintain- 
ing life independent of the parent. 

191. Give function of vagina. 

A. The membranous canal which receives the male 
generative organ, the penis, in the act of copulation, and 
is the passage through which the foetus is discharged. 

192. Tell what you know of the ovaries. 

A. Two oval bodies in the cavity of the pelvis, one 
on each side, inclosed in the folds of the broad ligaments. 
Dimensions, 1 y 2 in. hx - ; 4 ' in. They are attached to the 
uterus by a fibrous cord and slightly to one of the fim- 
briae of the Fallopian tubes. They have a fibrous envel- 
ope and are covered by the germ epithelium. The 
stroma, a soft fibrous tissue, contains a number of ves- 
icles in various stages of development, called Graafian 
vesicles. 



152 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

193. How do the Fallopian tubes grasp the ovule as 
it leaves the ovary ? 

A. By their fimbriated extemities which are in con- 
stant ciliary movement. 

194. Describe the Graafian vesicles. 

A. They consist of an external covering of fibrous 
tissue, lined by a layer of cells, the membi'a?ia gra?ndosa. 
At the knver end is an accumulation of cells, called the 
proligerotts disc which contains the ovum. The cavity 
of the vesicle contains fluid. 

195. Describe the ovum. 

A . Globular body, T ±- 5 - of an inch in diameter, covered 
externally by vitelline membrane — a central granular 
substance, the vitellus or yelk, a nucleus, the germinal 
vesicle containing in its interior the nucleolos or germ- 
inal spot, 

196. Describe the Fallopian tubes. 

A. The} T are four inches long and extend from the 
upper angle ot the uterus to the ovaries. Have an ex- 
ternal or peritoneal coat, a middle or muscular, and an 
internal or mucous. 

197. Describe the uterus. 

A. It is pear-shaped and is made up of the body and 
neck; 3 in. long by 2 in. broad, when not impregnated. 
The walls are made up of layers of unstriped muscles, 
covered externally with peritoneum and lined internally 
with mucous membrane. 

198. Describe the discharge of the ovule or ovulution. 

A: The Graafian follicles are forming constantly from 
puberty to the menopause. A follicle ripens or matures 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 15.1 

about every 28 days. It approaches the surface of the 
ovary, ruptures, and the ovule and liquid contents are 
caught by the fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube 
and are conducted to the uterus in from 10 to 14 days. 

199. Describe menstruation. 

A. The flow of blood, epithelium, mucus and remains 
of mucous membrane lining uterus, which accompanies 
the discharge of the ripened ovule. 

200. What is the child bearing period ? 

A, Coincident with menstruation, which begins at 
from 12 to 14 years of age and ceases at between 40 and 
50 years of age. 

201. Do ovulation and menstruation take place always 11 
at the same time ? 

A. They are usually coincident but ovulation may 
precede or follow menstruation. 

THE MALE GENERATIVE ORGANS. 

202. Xame the Male Generative organs and describe 
the testicles. 

A, These organs are the testicles, vasa deferentia, 
vesiculae seminales and penis. The testicles are the es- 
ential organs of reproduction and are two oblong glands 
I 1 .- inches long and situated in the scrotum. 

203. What is the tunica albuginea ? 

A. White fibrous structure enveloping the testicle 
which is reflected into its interior, forming the medias- 
tinum testes, a vertical process which gives off septa divid- 
ing the testicles into lobules. 



154 OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 

204. What makes up the substance of the testicles? 

A. The semniferous tubules 840 in number which 
are convoluted and are 30 inches long. At the apex 
they terminate in 20 to 30 straight ducts, the vasa recta 
which pass up through the mediastinum constituting the 
rete testis. At the upper end of the mediastinum these 
tubles form 9 to 39 small ducts the vasa efferentia which 
become convoluted and form the globus major of the 
epididymis; the tubes continue downward behind the 
testicle and a second convolution forms the body and 
globus minor of the epididymis. The seminal tubule 
consists of a basement membrane lined with granular 
nucleated epithelium. 

205. What is the Yas Deferens ? 

A. The excretory duct of the testicle, two feet long. 
It runs up from the base of the epididymis to the under 
surface of the base of the bladder, uniting there with the 
vesiculae seminales to form the ejaculatory duct. 

206. What are the Vesiculae Seminales ? 

A. Two pear shaped bodies near the bladder which 
serve as reservoirs for the temporary storage of the semi- 
nal fluid. 

207. What is the ejaculatory duct ? 

A. It is formed by the union of the vas deferens and 
visiculae seminalis on each side. It is 34 of an in. long 
and opens into the urethra. 

208. Where is the Prostate gland? 

A. It surrounds the posterior extremity of the ure- 
thra into which it opens, by 20 to 30 openings. It secretes 
a fluid which forms a part of the semen and assists in 
keeping up the vitality of the spermatozoa. 



OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGY. 



209. What is Semen? 

A. A complex fluid formed by the secretions of the 
testicles, the vesiculae seminales, the prostate and ure- 
thral glands. It :s grayish white in color mucilaginous, 
has a peculiar odor of its own and is heavier than water. 
From one- half to one drachm is ejaculated at each orgasm. 

210. What are the Spermatozoa? 

A. The vital elements of the semen, developed from 
the epithelial cells lining the seminiferous tubules. They 
have spontaneous movement, and a conoidal head with a 
long filamentous tail in constant motion, While in the 
vas deferens the}' are quiet, but in the fluid of the vesi- 
culae seminales are very active. When introduced into 
the vagina the}' pass to the uterus and through the 
Fallopian tubes toward the ovaries. 

211. What is Fecundation ? 

A. The union of the syermatozoa with the ovule as 
it passes along the Fallopian tube toward the uterus. 
They float around the ovule in large numbers, penetrate 
the vitelline membrane and reach the vitellus where they, 
together with the germinal vesicle disappear. 



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